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Cumulative cultural evolution (CCE), the improvement of cultural traits over generations via social transmission, is widely believed to be unique to humans. The capacity to build upon others' knowledge, technologies, and skills has produced the most diverse and sophisticated technological repertoire in the animal kingdom. Yet, inconsistency in both the definitions and criteria used to determine CCE and the methodology used to examine it across studies may be hindering our ability to determine which aspects are unique to humans. Issues regarding how improvement is defined and measured and whether some criteria are empirically testable are of increasing concern to the field. In this article, we critically assess the progress made in the field and current points of debate from conceptual and methodological perspectives. We discuss how inconsistency in definitions is detrimental to our ability to document potential evidence of CCE to nonhuman animals. We build on Mesoudi and Thornton's (2018) recently described core and extended CCE criteria to make specific recommendations about, from a comparative lens, which criteria should be used as evidence of CCE. We evaluate existing data from both wild and captive studies of nonhuman animals using these suggestions. We finish by discussing issues currently faced by researchers studying CCE in nonhuman animals, particularly nonhuman primates, and provide suggestions that may overcome these concerns and move the field forward. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Minimal Cognition approach has emerged vigorously, focusing on the study of the adaptive behavior of the simplest organisms, including bacteria, assuming that they are sentient and information-processing entities. Although Minimal Cognition has occasionally used Pavlovian methods to try to demonstrate Associative Learning, neither the Psychology of Learning nor the Comparative Psychology traditions are prominent in the movement. However, the Psychology of Learning approach, with its highly sophisticated experimental designs, has done a great deal of research on Associative Learning in animals and carried out several studies on plants and unicellular organisms. The present work offers a comprehensive review of these experimental results, among invertebrates, plants and unicellular organisms (paramecia and the amoeba Physarum policephalum) showing that, while there are increasing instances of Associative Learning in many invertebrate phyla (and also many phyla with no data) there is no adequate evidence of it in unicellular protists (despite more than a century of experiments with paramecia and amoeba) or in plants (despite recent results that so claim). We then consider the alternative offered by Minimal Cognition and suggest some complementary ideas, from a Comparative Developmental Psychology approach, which we call "Minimal Development." (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Comparative psychologists study cognition by characterizing the behavior of individual species and explicitly comparing behavior across species. We use the extensive comparative literature on transitive inference (TI) as a case study to evaluate four central methodological questions that continue to be debated in the field of comparative psychology 1) Are contextual variables sufficient to explain species differences in cognition? 2) Can cognitive performance be accounted for by associative processes alone? 3) Can we determine the cognitive mechanisms by which animals solve tasks? and 4) What is the role of ecologically driven hypotheses in comparative psychology? Although contextual variables and associative processes undeniably influence choice behavior in TI tasks, neither is sufficient to explain all performance. Instead, multiple distinct cognitive mechanisms, including associative processes, logical inference, and spatial representations, can and do result in successful TI performance. TI is not a unitary task solved using a single mechanism; multiple processes are recruited, with their degree of involvement dependent on context, species, and evolutionary pressures. This suggests that rather than asking whether animals possess a certain cognitive ability, research should focus on differences in when and how species employ tools from what is often a reasonably similar cognitive toolbox. We join others who have proposed that a main goal of comparative psychology should be to determine how animals solve cognitive tasks, through minimizing and studying the influence of contextual variables, evaluating the contributions of associative processes, clearly characterizing and testing alternative cognitive mechanisms, and using strong evolutionary hypotheses to guide predictions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).This special issue originally placed a Call for Papers that emphasized the importance of "Conceptual and Methodological" advances in the field of Comparative Cognition. Represented here is a collection of 14 papers that helps to display some of the diversity of ideas and approaches within this flourishing research area. The first paper in this issue, by Gazes and Lazareva (2021), discusses transitive inference learning from the perspectives of identifying the problems of contextual variables in studying different species; whether associative processes can or cannot fully account for the behavior and, if not, what alternative representational mechanisms might be at work; and, finally, how ecological considerations may support comparative research by suggesting novel theoretical and empirical questions. The next paper, by Loy et al. (2021) investigates questions related to the complexity of learning in invertebrate species, single-celled organisms, and plants. Gilteritinib The paper by Rawlings et al. (2021) reviews the lit1) discusses some of the methodological difficulties one faces in studying spatial cognition in canines. link2 The paper by Castro et al. (2021) uses a complex categorization learning task in which different sets of display features are diagnostic, or not, of category mastery depending upon context. The paper by Vernouillet et al. (2021) explores the formation of same/different concept learning in two species of corvids (pinyon jays and California scrub jays). The final paper, by Lazarowski et al. (2021) examines the possibility of abstract same/different learning in canines using a trial-unique training matching-to-sample procedure with olfactory stimuli. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).This exploratory study expands the literature on teachers' natural use of praise and reprimand, in terms of how teachers deliver praise and reprimand. Sixty-six middle and high school teachers' delivery of praise and reprimand to individual, small groups, and large groups during a 20-min observation were examined. Teachers delivered significantly more general praise (GP) to individual students, rather than small groups or large groups. However, there was no significant difference in teachers' delivery of behavior-specific praise (BSP) to individual, small groups, or large groups of students. Teachers delivered significantly more mild reprimand to individual students compared to small groups; however, no significant differences were found between mild reprimand delivery to individual and large groups of students. Implications and suggestions for future research are offered. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Individuals chronically vary in the extent to which they think about the past, present, and future. This individual difference-temporal focus-relates to a variety of work and life outcomes including affective well-being, job performance, and career success. Although it has been proposed that people can simultaneously focus on the past, present, and future (Lewin, 1943), tests of this idea within the organizational sciences remain scarce, with scholars instead focusing on the independent predictions of each aspect of temporal focus. As such, contradictory findings exist regarding the benefits of each dimension. In an effort to advance the discussion of temporal focus in the organizational literature, we present two studies that utilize latent profile analysis (LPA) to examine how people think about time holistically, uncovering initial profiles of past, present, and future temporal focus (Study 1) and demonstrating their effect on important work outcomes related to affect (e.g., job satisfaction, affective commitment) and withdrawal at work (e.g., turnover intentions, absenteeism, lateness; Study 2). Combined, our findings offer theoretical and practical implications that clarify conclusions about temporal focus in organizations and suggest directions for future work. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Interpersonal anxiety (i.e., the fear of negative consequences from interacting with someone) may be more prominent in post-#MeToo organizations when interacting with someone of a different gender. Initial exchanges may particularly trigger this anxiety, obfuscating key organizational decisions such as hiring. Given humor's positive, intrapersonal stress-reduction effects, we propose that humor also reduces interpersonal anxiety. In three mixed-methods experiments with hiring managers, we examined the effects of applicant and evaluator gender (i.e., same-/mixed-gender dyad), positive applicant humor (i.e., a pun), and context (i.e., gender salience) in job interviews. Results showed that mixed-gender (vs. same-gender) interactions elicited more interpersonal anxiety, particularly when gender was more salient; mixed-gender interactions also predicted downstream attitudinal outcomes (e.g., social attraction and willingness to hire) and hiring decisions (e.g., selection and rejection) via interpersonal anxiety. Although humor reduced interpersonal anxiety and its consequences for female applicants, the opposite was true for male applicants when gender was salient, because it signaled some of the same expectations that initially triggered the interpersonal anxiety the potential for harmful sexual behavior. In sum, we integrated diversity and humor theories to examine interpersonal anxiety in same- and mixed-gender interactions and then tested the extent to which humor relieved it. link3 (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Although habits are a well-researched topic within psychology, habits enacted at the workplace received limited attention in the organizational literature. In this article we examine habits that employees show at the workplace. Because workplace habits are not always functional for performance or affective outcomes, and because employees themselves may regard specific habits as undesirable, it is important to identify ways of how employees can abandon such unwanted habits. We report findings from a daily-survey study (N = 145 persons) in which we examined if self-regulatory processes predict disengagement from undesirable habits and engagement in more desirable alternative behaviors. Multilevel path analysis showed that day-specific implementation intentions and day-specific vigilant monitoring were negatively related to day-specific habitual behavior and positively related to day-specific alternative behaviors, both in the morning and in the afternoon. Analysis of follow-up data (N = 126 persons) showed that change in habit strength was stable over a 2-month period, suggesting that implementation intentions, vigilant monitoring, and the associated enactment of alternative behavior indeed may help to disengage from unwanted habits, particularly with respect to task-related habits and when consistency in vigilant monitoring is high.
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