Notes

Group Oligosaccharides Gland Oligosaccharides Milk Oligosaccharides
In fact, HMOs are the third-most abundant solid component in maternal milk after lactose and lipids, and are thus considered to be key components. The importance of HMOs may be explained by their inhibitory effects on the adhesion of microorganisms to the intestinal mucosa, the growth of pathogens through the production of bacteriocins and organic acids, and the expression of genes that are involved in inflammation. This review begins with short descriptions of the basic structures of HMOs and the gut immune system, continues with the beneficial effects of HMOs shown in cell and animal studies, and it ends with the observational and randomized controlled trials carried out in humans to date, with particular emphasis on their effect on immune system development. HMOs seem to protect breastfed infants against microbial infections. The protective effect has been found to be exerted through cell signaling and cell-to-cell recognition events, enrichment of the protective gut microbiota, the modulation of microbial adhesion, and the invasion of the infant intestinal mucosa. In addition, infants fed formula supplemented with selected HMOs exhibit a pattern of inflammatory cytokines closer to that of exclusively breastfed infants.

Unfortunately, the positive effects found in preclinical studies have not been substantiated in the few randomized, double-blinded, multicenter, controlled trials that are available, perhaps partly because these studies focus on aspects other than the immune response (e.g., growth, tolerance, and stool Conflict of interest statement The authors declare no conflict of interest.Structure-function relationships of human milk oligosaccharides.Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA. Human Milk Glycans contains more than a hundred structurally distinct oligosaccharides. In this review, we provide examples of how the structural characteristics of these human milk oligosaccharides (HMO) determine functionality.

Specific α1-2-fucosylated HMO have been shown to serve as antiadhesive antimicrobials to protect the breast-fed infant against infections with Campylobacter jejuni, one of the most common causes of bacterial diarrhea. In contrast, α1-2-fucosylation may abolish the beneficial effects of HMO against Entamoeba histolytica, a protozoan parasite that causes colitis, acute dysentery, or chronic diarrhea. In Fucosylated oligosaccharides , HMO need to be both fucosylated and sialylated to reduce selectin-mediated leukocyte rolling, adhesion, and activation, which may protect breast-fed infants from excessive immune responses. In addition, our most recent data show that a single HMO that carries not 1 but 2 sialic acids protects neonatal rats from necrotizing enterocolitis, one of the most common and often fatal intestinal disorders in preterm infants. Oligosaccharides currently added to infant formula are structurally different from the oligosaccharides naturally occurring in human milk. Thus, it appears unlikely that they can mimic some of the structure-specific effects of HMO. Recent advances in glycan synthesis and isolation have increased the availability of certain HMO tri- and tetrasaccharides for in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies.

In the end, intervention studies are needed to confirm that the structure-specific effects observed at the laboratory bench translate into benefits for the human infant. Ultimately, breastfeeding remains the number one choice to nourish and nurture Conflict of interest statement Author disclosures L. Bode and E. Jantscher-Krenn, no conflicts of interest.Breast Milk Oligosaccharides Contain Immunomodulatory Glucuronic Acid and Gothenburg, Sweden; Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.Gothenburg, Sweden; Wallenberg Centre for Molecular and Translational Medicine, Breast milk is abundant with functionalized milk oligosaccharides (MOs) to nourish and protect the neonate. Yet we lack a comprehensive understanding of the repertoire and evolution of MOs across Mammalia.

We report ∼0 MO-species associations (0 novel structures) from milk glycomics of nine mostly understudied species alpaca, beluga whale, black rhinoceros, bottlenose dolphin, impala, L'Hoest's monkey, pygmy hippopotamus, domestic sheep, and striped dolphin. This revealed the hitherto unknown existence of the LacdiNAc motif (GalNAcβ1-4GlcNAc) in MOs of all species except alpaca, sheep, and striped dolphin, indicating the widespread occurrence of this potentially antimicrobial motif in MOs.
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