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Actinobacteria belonging to the genus Pseudonocardia have evolved a close relationship with multiple species of fungus-growing ants, where these bacteria produce diverse secondary metabolites that protect the ants and their fungal mutualists from disease. Recent research has charted the phylogenetic diversity of this symbiosis, revealing multiple instances where the ants and Pseudonocardia have formed stable relationships in which these bacteria are housed on specific regions of the ant's cuticle. Parallel chemical and genomic analyses have also revealed that symbiotic Pseudonocardia produce diverse secondary metabolites with antifungal and antibacterial bioactivities, and highlighted the importance of plasmid recombination and horizontal gene transfer for maintaining these symbiotic traits. Here, we propose a multi-level model for the evolution of Pseudonocardia and their secondary metabolites that includes symbiont transmission within and between ant colonies, and the potentially independent movement and diversification of their secondary metabolite biosynthetic genes. Because of their well-studied ecology and experimental tractability, Pseudonocardia symbionts of fungus-growing ants are an especially useful model system to understand the evolution of secondary metabolites, and also comprise a significant source of novel antibiotic and antifungal agents.[This corrects the article DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00998.].The objective of this experiment was to compare ruminal fluid samples collected through rumen cannula (RC) or using an oral stomach tube (ST) for measurement of ruminal fermentation and microbiota variables. Six ruminally cannulated lactating Holstein cows fed a standard diet were used in the study. Rumen samples were collected at 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, and 12 h after the morning feeding on two consecutive days using both RC and ST techniques. Samples were filtered through two layers of cheesecloth and the filtered ruminal fluid was used for further analysis. AM1241 purchase Compared with RC, ST samples had 7% greater pH; however, the pattern in pH change after feeding was similar between sampling methods. Total volatile fatty acids (VFA), acetate and propionate concentrations in ruminal fluid were on average 23% lower for ST compared with RC. There were no differences between RC and ST in VFA molar proportions (except for isobutyrate), ammonia and dissolved hydrogen (dH2) concentrations, or total protozoa counts, and there were no be a feasible sampling technique if the purpose is to study molar proportions of VFA, protozoa counts, dH2, and ammonia concentrations.Chilli veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV) is an important plant pathogen with a wide host range, causing serious yield losses in pepper production all over the world. Recombination is a major evolutionary event for single-stranded RNA viruses, which helps isolates adapt to new environmental conditions and hosts. Recombination events have been identified in multiple potyviruses, but so far, there have been no reports of recombination events among the ChiVMV population. We here detected ChiVMV in pepper samples collected from Guangxi and Yunnan provinces for the first time and amplified the nearly full-length sequences. Phylogenetic and recombination analysis were performed using the new sequences and the 14 full-length and 23 capsid protein (CP) sequences available in GenBank. Isolates tend to cluster on a geographical basis, indicating that geographic-driven evolution may be an important determinant of ChiVMV genetic differences. link2 A total of 10 recombination events were detected among the ChiVMV sequences using RDP4 with a strict algorithm, and both the Guangxi and Yunnan isolates were identified as recombinants. Recombination appears to be a significant factor affecting the diversity of ChiVMV isolates.[This corrects the article DOI 10.3389/fmicb.2020.579306.].One of the major components of the staphylococcal biofilm is surface proteins that assemble as scaffold components of the biofilm matrix. Among the different surface proteins able to contribute to biofilm formation, this review is dedicated to the Biofilm Associated Protein (Bap). Bap is part of the accessory genome of Staphylococcus aureus but orthologs of Bap in other staphylococcal species belong to the core genome. When present, Bap promotes adhesion to abiotic surfaces and induces strong intercellular adhesion by self-assembling into amyloid like aggregates in response to the levels of calcium and the pH in the environment. During infection, Bap enhances the adhesion to epithelial cells where it binds directly to the host receptor Gp96 and inhibits the entry of the bacteria into the cells. To perform such diverse range of functions, Bap comprises several domains, and some of them include several motifs associated to distinct functions. Based on the knowledge accumulated with the Bap protein of S. aureus, this review aims to summarize the current knowledge of the structure and properties of each domain of Bap and their contribution to Bap functionality.The thermophilic crenarchaeon Sulfolobus acidocaldarius has four DNA polymerases (DNAPs) PolB1, PolB2, PolB3, and Dbh (PolY). Previous in vitro studies suggested that PolB1 is the main replicative DNAP of Sulfolobales whereas PolB2 and Y-family polymerases Dpo4 (Saccharolobus solfataricus) or Dbh are involved in DNA repair and translesion DNA synthesis. On the other hand, there are various opinions about the role of PolB3, which remains to be clearly resolved. In order to examine the roles of the DNAPs of S. acidocaldarius through in vivo experiments, we constructed polB2, polB3, and dbh deletion strains and characterized their phenotypes. Efforts to construct a polB1 deletion strain were not successful; in contrast, it was possible to isolate triple gene-deletion strains lacking polB2, polB3, and dbh. The growth of these strains was nearly the same as that of the parent strains under normal growth conditions. The polB2, polB3, and dbh single-deletion strains were sensitive to some types of DNA-damaging treatments, but exhibited normal sensitivity to UV irradiation and several other damaging treatments. Overall, the genotype which exhibited the greatest sensitivity to the DNA-damaging treatments we tested was the ΔpolB2 ΔpolB3 combination, providing the first evidence of overlapping function for these two DNAPs in vivo. The results of our study strongly suggest that PolB1 is responsible for the DNA replication of both the leading and lagging strands and is sufficient to complete the repair of most DNA damage under normal growth conditions in S. acidocaldarius.Prokaryotes represent the largest living biomass reservoir in aquatic environments and play a crucial role in the global ocean. However, the factors that shape the abundance and potential growth rate of the ecologically distinct prokaryotic subgroups [i.e., high nucleic acid (HNA) and low nucleic acid (LNA) cells] along varying trophic conditions in the ocean remain poorly understood. This study conducted a series of modified dilution experiments to investigate how the abundance and potential growth rate of HNA and LNA prokaryotes and their regulating factors (i.e., protozoan grazing and viral lysis) change along a cross-shore nutrient gradient in the northern South China Sea. The results showed that the abundance of both HNA and LNA cells was significantly positively correlated with the abundance of heterotrophic nanoflagellates and viruses, whereas only HNA abundance exhibited a significant positive correlation with nutrient level. With a decreasing nutrient concentration, the potential growth rate of the Hhication will be strengthened due to global warming.Flagellar motility is considered an important virulence factor in different pathogenic bacteria. In Listeria monocytogenes the transcriptional repressor MogR regulates motility in a temperature-dependent manner, directly repressing flagellar- and chemotaxis genes. link3 The only other bacteria known to carry a mogR homolog are members of the Bacillus cereus group, which includes motile species such as B. cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis as well as the non-motile species Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus mycoides and Bacillus pseudomycoides. Furthermore, the main motility locus in B. cereus group bacteria, carrying the genes for flagellar synthesis, appears to be more closely related to L. monocytogenes than to Bacillus subtilis, which belongs to a separate phylogenetic group of Bacilli and does not carry a mogR ortholog. Here, we show that in B. thuringiensis, MogR overexpression results in non-motile cells devoid of flagella. Global gene expression profiling showed that 110 genes were differentially regulated by MogR Altogether this provides indications of an expanded set of functions for MogR in B. cereus group species, beyond motility regulation. In conclusion, MogR constitutes a novel B. thuringiensis pleiotropic transcriptional regulator, acting as a repressor of motility genes, and affecting the expression of a variety of additional genes involved in biofilm formation and virulence.Campylobacter jejuni is a major cause of foodborne gastroenteritis worldwide inflicting palpable socioeconomic costs. The ability of this pathogen to successfully infect its hosts is determined not only by the presence of specific virulence genes but also by the pathogen's capacity to appropriately regulate those virulence genes. Therefore, DNA methylation can play a critical role in both aspects of this process because it serves as both a means to protect the integrity of the cellular DNA from invasion and as a mechanism to control transcriptional regulation within the cell. In the present study we report the comparative methylome data of C. jejuni YH002, a multidrug resistant strain isolated from retail beef liver. Investigation into the methylome identified a putative novel motif (CGCGA) of a type II restriction-modification (RM) system. Comparison of methylomes of the strain to well-studied C. jejuni strains highlighted non-uniform methylation patterns among the strains though the existence of the typical type I and type IV RM systems were also observed. Additional investigations into the existence of DNA methylation sites within gene promoters, which may ultimately result in altered levels of transcription, revealed several virulence genes putatively regulated using this mode of action. Of those identified, a flagella gene (flhB), a RNA polymerase sigma factor (rpoN), a capsular polysaccharide export protein (kpsD), and a multidrug efflux pump were highly notable.Until now, there are few studies and reports on the use of endogenous promoters of obligate biotrophic fungi. The WY195 promoter in the genome of Oidium heveae, the rubber powdery mildew pathogen, was predicted using PromoterScan and its promoter function was verified by the transient expression of the β-glucuronidase (GUS) gene. WY195 drove high levels of GUS expression in dicotyledons and monocotyledons. qRT-PCR indicated that GUS expression regulated by the WY195 promoter was 17.54-fold greater than that obtained using the CaMV 35S promoter in dicotyledons (Nicotiana tabacum), and 5.09-fold greater than that obtained using the ACT1 promoter in monocotyledons (Oryza sativa). Furthermore, WY195-regulated GUS gene expression was induced under high-temperature and drought conditions. Soluble proteins extracted from WY195-hpaXm transgenic tobacco was bioactive. Defensive micro-HR induced by the transgene expression of hpaXm was observed on transgenic tobacco leaves. Disease resistance bioassays showed that WY195-hpaXm transgenic tobacco enhanced the resistance to tobacco mosaic virus (TMV).
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