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Prospects for a parametric account of auditory distraction are considered. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).In the present article, we report two eye-tracking experiments on how Chinese readers segment incremental words while reading Chinese. Incremental words are multicharacter words containing a subset of characters that constitute another word (referred to as the embedded word). For example, in a word containing three characters ABC (e.g., "," meaning landlady), the first two characters AB ("," meaning boss) constitute an embedded word. In the two experiments, Chinese readers read sentences with 3-character incremental words. In Experiment 1, the incremental words were always plausible, and the verbs prior to the target words were manipulated so that the embedded word of the incremental word was either plausible or implausible as an independent word. Sulfopin manufacturer The eye-movement data showed that the plausibility manipulation did not influence the reading times on the incremental words nor their embedded words. In Experiment 2, we manipulated the plausibility of both incremental and embedded words. No plausibility effect of the embedded word was observed when the incremental words were plausible. However, the plausibility effect of the embedded word was obtained when the incremental words were implausible. These results suggest that Chinese readers tend to segment and integrate incremental words as a whole unit when they are plausible. However, when incremental words are implausible, the embedded words are segmented as independent words. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Research on study sequences has not considered the cross-classification of to-be-learned categories. In two experiments, we utilized cross-classified exemplars, which simultaneously belonged to categories of two orthogonal dimensions. Experiment 1 addressed the question of how interleaving one category dimension while simultaneous blocking another category dimension affects the induction of the simultaneously blocked category dimension. Experiment 2 examined our proposed mechanism by manipulating the degree of change (one-category vs. cross-category change) and the frequency of change (high vs. low) in the presentation sequence of exemplars with cross-classified characteristics. In Experiment 1, sequences that combined interleaving one dimension while blocking the other dimension were superior to sequences that provided no comparison opportunities when classifying both interleaved and blocked categories. This revealed a carry-over effect of interleaving blocked and interleaved categories were equally well classified. Our findings are incompatible with the discriminative contrast hypothesis and the attentional bias framework, where interleaving is not assumed to support within-category comparisons. We explain the results according to the principle of change one category at a time (COCAT). Interleaving exemplars on one category dimension, but blocking them on another category dimension, enables learners to reliably map the distinctive features onto the covarying categories and the shared features onto the constant category. In contrast, there is a risk of confounding common characteristics when no comparison opportunities are given. Likewise, pure interleaving impedes category induction by confounding changing characteristics. Accordingly, Experiment 2 demonstrated that as long as a sequence implemented the COCAT principle, learners accurately identify diagnostic feature sets. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Categorization researchers have long debated the possibility of multiple category-learning systems. The need persists for paradigms that dissociate explicit-declarative category-learning processes (featuring verbalizable category rules) from implicit-procedural processes (featuring stimulus-response associations lying beneath declarative cognition). The authors contribute a new paradigm, using perfectly matched exclusive-or (XOR) category tasks differing only in the availability or absence of easily verbalizable conceptual content. This manipulation transformed learning. The conceptual task alone was learned suddenly, by insightful rule discovery, producing explicit-declarative XOR knowledge. The perceptual task was learned more gradually, consistent with associative-learning processes, producing impoverished declarative knowledge. We also tested participants under regimens of immediate and deferred reinforcement. The conceptual task alone was learned through processes that survive the loss of trial-by-trial reinforcement. All results support the idea that humans have perceptual-associative processes for implicit learning, but also an overlain conceptual system that under the right circumstances constitutes a parallel explicit-declarative category-learning system. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).Causal knowledge is not static; it is constantly modified based on new evidence. The present set of seven experiments explores 1 important case of causal belief revision that has been neglected in research so far causal interpolations. A simple prototypic case of an interpolation is a situation in which we initially have knowledge about a causal relation or a positive covariation between 2 variables but later become interested in the mechanism linking these 2 variables. Our key finding is that the interpolation of mechanism variables tends to be misrepresented, which leads to the paradox of knowing more The more people know about a mechanism, the weaker they tend to find the probabilistic relation between the 2 variables (i.e., weakening effect). Indeed, in all our experiments we found that, despite identical learning data about 2 variables, the probability linking the 2 variables was judged higher when follow-up research showed that the 2 variables were assumed to be directly causally linked (i.e., C→E) than when participants were instructed that the causal relation is in fact mediated by a variable representing a component of the mechanism (M; i.e., C→M→E). Our explanation of the weakening effect is that people often confuse discoveries of preexisting but unknown mechanisms with situations in which new variables are being added to a previously simpler causal model, thus violating causal stability assumptions in natural kind domains. The experiments test several implications of this hypothesis. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).
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