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Infrared cold weather image regulates freezing as well as warming in skin cryoablation.
These findings lead us to propose that cytoplasmic streaming - and thus motion by advection - contributes to the correct orientation of MTs in vivo. Finally, we propose a possible mechanism for a specialised cytoplasmic actin network (the actin mesh) to act as a regulator of flow speeds; to counteract the recruitment of Kinesin to microtubules. [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text] [Media see text].This study investigated whether modulation of corticospinal-motoneuronal excitability and/or synaptic transmission of the Ia afferent spinal reflex contributes to decreases in voluntary activation and muscular force after an acute bout of prolonged static muscle stretching. Fifteen males performed 5×60-s constant-torque stretches (15-s rest intervals; total duration 5-min) of the plantar flexors on an isokinetic dynamometer and a non-stretching control condition in random order on two separate days. Maximum isometric plantar flexor torque and triceps surae muscle electromyographic activity (normalized to M-wave; EMG/M) were simultaneously recorded immediately before and after each condition. Motor-evoked potentials (using transcranial magnetic stimulation) and H-reflexes were recorded from soleus during EMG-controlled submaximal contractions (23.4±6.9% EMG maximum). No changes were detected in the control condition. After stretching, however, peak torque (mean±SD; -14.3±7.0%) and soleus EMG/M (-17.8±6.2%) decreased and these changes were highly correlated (r=0.83). Selleck Mycophenolate mofetil No changes were observed after stretching in soleus MEP or H-reflex amplitudes measured during submaximal contractions, and inter-individual variability of changes were not correlated with changes in EMG activity or maximum torque. During EMG-controlled submaximal contractions, torque production was significantly decreased after stretching (-22.7±15.0%), indicating a compromised muscular output. These data provide support that changes in the excitability of the corticospinal-motoneuronal and Ia afferent spinal reflex pathways do not contribute to post-stretch neural impairment.Our current knowledge on the neurophysiological properties of intrinsic foot muscles is limited, especially at high forces. This study therefore aimed to investigate the discharge characteristics of single motor units in an intrinsic foot muscle, namely flexor hallucis brevis, during voluntary contractions up to 100% of maximal voluntary contraction. We measured the recruitment threshold and discharge rate of flexor hallucis brevis motor units using indwelling fine-wire electrodes. Ten participants followed a target ramp up to maximal voluntary contraction by applying a metatarso-phalangeal flexion torque. We observed motor unit recruitment thresholds across a wide range of isometric forces (ranging from 10 to 98% of maximal voluntary contraction) as well as across a wide range of discharge rates (ranging from 4.8 to 23.3 Hz for initial discharge rate and 9.5 to 34.2 Hz for peak discharge rate). We further observed patterns of high variability in recruitment threshold and discharge rate as well as crossover in discharge rate between motor units within the same participant. These findings suggest that the force output of a muscle is generated through a mechanism with substantial variability rather than relying on a rigid organisation, which is in contrast to the proposed onion-skin theory. The demands placed on the plantar intrinsic foot muscles during high and low force tasks may explain these observed neurophysiological properties.The rodent granular retrosplenial cortex (gRSC) has reciprocal connections to the hippocampus to support fear memories. Although activity-dependent plasticity occurs within the RSC during memory formation, the intrinsic and morphological properties of RSC neurons are poorly understood. The current study used whole-cell recordings to examine intrinsic neuronal firing and morphology of neurons in layer 2/3 (L2/3) and layer 5 (L5) of the gRSC in adult, male rats. Five different classifications were observed regular-spiking (RS), regular-spiking after-depolarization (RSADP), late-spiking (LS), burst-spiking (BS), and fast-spiking (FS) neurons. RSADP neurons were the most commonly observed neuronal class - identified by their robust spike frequency adaptation and pronounced afterdepolarization (ADP) following an action potential (AP). They also had the most extensive dendritic branching compared to other cell types. LS neurons were predominantly found in L2/3 and exhibited a long delay prior to onset of their initial AP. They also had reduced dendritic branching compared to other cell types. BS neurons were limited to L5 and generated an initial burst of 2 or more APs. FS neurons demonstrated sustained firing, little frequency adaptation, and were the only non-pyramidal firing type. Relative to adults, RS neurons from juvenile rats (PND 14-30) lacked an ADP and were less excitable. Bath-application of group 1 mGluR blockers attenuated the ADP in adult neurons. In other fear-related brain structures, the ADP has been shown to enhance excitability and synaptic plasticity. Thus, understanding cellular mechanisms of the gRSC will provide insight regarding its precise role in memory-related processes across the lifespan.BACKGROUND Cannabinoids may potentiate opioid analgesia and therefore could be used to reduce reliance on opioids for analgesia. AIMS The current study evaluated whether the concurrent availability of cannabis influences opioid consumption using a behavioral economic demand framework. METHODS An online survey assessed cannabis and opioid use frequency and dependence measures, pain severity, and demand for both cannabis and opioids alone and when concurrently available using hypothetical purchase tasks. Adults reporting current use of opioids for pain management and past 30-day cannabis exposure (N=155) completed two hypothetical purchase tasks in which only grams of cannabis or units of participants' index opioids were available for purchase, and two hypothetical tasks in which both were concurrently available and the price of one drug increased whereas the other was kept constant. Paired-sample t-tests compared the demand of each drug alone with when it was available concurrently with an alternative. RESULTS Demand intensity was significantly reduced and demand elasticity was significantly increased for both cannabis and opioids when the alternate commodity was available, although the reductions in cannabis consumption were more pronounced than they were for opioid consumption in the presence of the alternate commodity.
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