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The Academy's Evolution Site

Biology is a key concept in biology. The Academies are committed to helping those who are interested in science learn about the theory of evolution and how it can be applied in all areas of scientific research.

This site provides teachers, students and general readers with a wide range of learning resources about evolution. It includes key video clip from NOVA and WGBH produced science programs on DVD.

Tree of Life

The Tree of Life, an ancient symbol, symbolizes the interconnectedness of all life. It is seen in a variety of religions and cultures as a symbol of unity and love. It can be used in many practical ways as well, such as providing a framework for understanding the evolution of species and how they respond to changing environmental conditions.

The first attempts at depicting the biological world focused on the classification of organisms into distinct categories that had been distinguished by their physical and metabolic characteristics1. These methods rely on the collection of various parts of organisms or short DNA fragments have significantly increased the diversity of a tree of Life2. These trees are largely composed of eukaryotes, while the diversity of bacterial species is greatly underrepresented3,4.

By avoiding the need for direct experimentation and observation, genetic techniques have made it possible to represent the Tree of Life in a more precise way. Trees can be constructed using molecular methods such as the small subunit ribosomal gene.

Despite the dramatic growth of the Tree of Life through genome sequencing, a large amount of biodiversity remains to be discovered. This is particularly true of microorganisms that are difficult to cultivate and are often only present in a single sample5. A recent analysis of all genomes that are known has created a rough draft of the Tree of Life, including numerous bacteria and archaea that have not been isolated, and which are not well understood.

The expanded Tree of Life is particularly useful in assessing the diversity of an area, which can help to determine whether specific habitats require special protection. The information is useful in many ways, including finding new drugs, fighting diseases and enhancing crops. The information is also incredibly beneficial in conservation efforts. It can help biologists identify areas that are likely to have species that are cryptic, which could have vital metabolic functions and are susceptible to human-induced change. Although funding to protect biodiversity are crucial, ultimately the best way to protect the world's biodiversity is for more people in developing countries to be equipped with the knowledge to take action locally to encourage conservation from within.

Phylogeny

A phylogeny, also called an evolutionary tree, illustrates the connections between groups of organisms. Scientists can create a phylogenetic diagram that illustrates the evolution of taxonomic groups using molecular data and morphological similarities or differences. Phylogeny plays a crucial role in understanding the relationship between genetics, biodiversity and evolution.

A basic phylogenetic Tree (see Figure PageIndex 10 ) determines the relationship between organisms with similar traits that evolved from common ancestors. These shared traits could be either homologous or analogous. Homologous traits are similar in their evolutionary roots and analogous traits appear similar but do not have the same ancestors. Scientists group similar traits together into a grouping referred to as a the clade. For example, all of the organisms that make up a clade have the characteristic of having amniotic egg and evolved from a common ancestor which had eggs. A phylogenetic tree is built by connecting the clades to determine the organisms which are the closest to one another.

Scientists make use of DNA or RNA molecular information to construct a phylogenetic graph that is more precise and detailed. This data is more precise than morphological information and provides evidence of the evolutionary background of an organism or group. The use of molecular data lets researchers determine the number of species who share the same ancestor and estimate their evolutionary age.

Phylogenetic relationships can be affected by a number of factors such as the phenotypic plasticity. 바카라 에볼루션 is a type of behavior that changes as a result of specific environmental conditions. This can cause a particular trait to appear more like a species another, obscuring the phylogenetic signal. However, this problem can be cured by the use of methods such as cladistics which include a mix of similar and homologous traits into the tree.

Additionally, phylogenetics can aid in predicting the length and speed of speciation. This information will assist conservation biologists in making decisions about which species to save from disappearance. It is ultimately the preservation of phylogenetic diversity which will create an ecosystem that is complete and balanced.

Evolutionary Theory

The fundamental concept in evolution is that organisms change over time due to their interactions with their environment. Many scientists have developed theories of evolution, including the Islamic naturalist Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-274), who believed that an organism could evolve according to its individual requirements and needs, the Swedish taxonomist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) who developed the modern taxonomy system that is hierarchical as well as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1844-1829), who suggested that the usage or non-use of traits can cause changes that are passed on to the

In the 1930s and 1940s, concepts from a variety of fields -- including genetics, natural selection and particulate inheritance - came together to form the modern synthesis of evolutionary theory, which defines how evolution is triggered by the variation of genes within a population and how those variations change in time as a result of natural selection. This model, which is known as genetic drift or mutation, gene flow, and sexual selection, is the foundation of current evolutionary biology, and can be mathematically explained.

Recent developments in the field of evolutionary developmental biology have shown how variation can be introduced to a species by mutations, genetic drift or reshuffling of genes in sexual reproduction, and even migration between populations. These processes, as well as others like directional selection and genetic erosion (changes in the frequency of a genotype over time), can lead to evolution which is defined by change in the genome of the species over time and also the change in phenotype over time (the expression of the genotype within the individual).

Students can better understand the concept of phylogeny by using evolutionary thinking in all aspects of biology. In a study by Grunspan and colleagues. It was demonstrated that teaching students about the evidence for evolution increased their understanding of evolution in the course of a college biology. For more information on how to teach about evolution look up The Evolutionary Potency in all Areas of Biology or Thinking Evolutionarily as a Framework for Integrating Evolution into Life Sciences Education.

Evolution in Action

Scientists have traditionally studied evolution by looking in the past, analyzing fossils and comparing species. They also observe living organisms. Evolution is not a past event; it is an ongoing process that continues to be observed today. Viruses reinvent themselves to avoid new medications and bacteria mutate to resist antibiotics. Animals adapt their behavior because of a changing environment. The results are often evident.


But it wasn't until the late 1980s that biologists realized that natural selection could be observed in action as well. The reason is that different characteristics result in different rates of survival and reproduction (differential fitness), and can be passed from one generation to the next.

In the past, if an allele - the genetic sequence that determines colour appeared in a population of organisms that interbred, it might become more prevalent than any other allele. As time passes, that could mean the number of black moths in the population could increase. The same is true for many other characteristics--including morphology and behavior--that vary among populations of organisms.

Observing evolutionary change in action is easier when a species has a rapid turnover of its generation such as bacteria. Since 1988 biologist Richard Lenski has been tracking twelve populations of E. Coli that descended from a single strain; samples from each population are taken every day, and over fifty thousand generations have been observed.

Lenski's research has revealed that a mutation can dramatically alter the efficiency with which a population reproduces--and so the rate at which it evolves. It also shows that evolution takes time--a fact that some people find difficult to accept.

Microevolution can be observed in the fact that mosquito genes that confer resistance to pesticides are more prevalent in populations where insecticides have been used. Pesticides create a selective pressure which favors individuals who have resistant genotypes.

The speed at which evolution takes place has led to a growing awareness of its significance in a world that is shaped by human activities, including climate change, pollution, and the loss of habitats that hinder the species from adapting. Understanding evolution will assist you in making better choices about the future of the planet and its inhabitants.

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