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Pulmonary Mycobacterium abscessus and reaction to remedy in an outpatient setting: Situation sequence.
The Earth's climate is changing at a rapid pace. To survive in increasingly fluctuating and unpredictable environments, species can either migrate or evolve through rapid local adaptation, plasticity and/or bet-hedging. For small ectotherm insects, like parasitoids and their hosts, phenotypic plasticity and bet-hedging could be critical strategies for population and species persistence in response to immediate, intense and unpredictable temperature changes. Here, we focus on studies evaluating phenotypic responses to variable predictable thermal conditions (for which phenotypic plasticity is favoured) and unpredictable thermal environments (for which bet-hedging is favoured), both within and between host and parasitoid generations. We then address the effects of fluctuating temperatures on host-parasitoid interactions, potential cascading effects on the food web, as well as biological control services. We conclude our review by proposing a road map for designing experiments to assess if plasticity and bet-hedging can be adaptive strategies, and to disentangle how fluctuating temperatures can affect the evolution of these two strategies in parasitoids and their hosts.Physiological studies contribute to a cause and effect understanding of ecological patterns under climate change and identify the scope and limits of adaptation. Across most habitats, this requires analyzing organism responses to warming, which can be modified by other drivers such as acidification and oxygen loss in aquatic environments or excess humidity or drought on land. Experimental findings support the hypothesis that the width and temperature range of thermal performance curves relate to biogeographical range. Current warming causes range shifts, hypothesized to include constraints in aerobic power budget which in turn are elicited by limitations in oxygen supply capacity in relation to demand. Different metabolic scopes involved may set the borders of both the fundamental niche (at standard metabolic rate) and the realized niche (at routine rate). Relative scopes for aerobic performance also set the capacity of species to interact with others at the ecosystem level. Niche limits and widths are shifting and probably interdependent across life stages, with young adults being least thermally vulnerable. The principles of thermal tolerance and performance may also apply to endotherms including humans, their habitat and human society. Overall, phylogenetically based comparisons would need to consider the life cycle of species as well as organism functional properties across climate zones and time scales. This Review concludes with a perspective on how mechanism-based understanding allows scrutinizing often simplified modeling approaches projecting future climate impacts and risks for aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. It also emphasizes the usefulness of a consensus-building process among experimentalists for better recognition in the climate debate.The accelerating biodiversity crisis, for which climate change has become an important driver, urges the scientific community for answers to the question of whether and how species are capable of responding successfully to rapidly changing climatic conditions. For a better understanding and more realistic predictions of species' and biodiversity responses, the consideration of extrinsic (i.e. environment-related) and intrinsic (i.e. organism-related) factors is important, among which four appear to be particularly crucial climate change and land-use change, as extrinsic factors, as well as physiology and dispersal capacity, as intrinsic factors. Here, I argue that these four factors should be considered in an integrative way, but that the scientific community has not yet been very successful in doing so. A quantitative literature review revealed a generally low level of integration within global change biology, with a pronounced gap especially between the field of physiology and other (sub)disciplines. After a discussion of potential reasons for this unfortunate lack of integration, some of which may relate to key deficits e.g. Crenolanib in vivo in the reward and incentive systems of academia, I suggest a few ideas that might help to overcome some of the barriers between separated research communities. Furthermore, I list several examples for promising research along the integration frontier, after which I outline some research questions that could become relevant if one is to push the boundary of integration among disciplines, of data and methods, and across scales even further - for a better understanding and more reliable predictions of species and biodiversity in a world of global change.Mammals in drylands are facing not only increasing heat loads but also reduced water and food availability as a result of climate change. Insufficient water results in suppression of evaporative cooling and therefore increases in body core temperature on hot days, while lack of food reduces the capacity to maintain body core temperature on cold nights. Both food and water shortage will narrow the prescriptive zone, the ambient temperature range over which body core temperature is held relatively constant, which will lead to increased risk of physiological malfunction and death. Behavioural modifications, such as shifting activity between night and day or seeking thermally buffered microclimates, may allow individuals to remain within the prescriptive zone, but can incur costs, such as reduced foraging or increased competition or predation, with consequences for fitness. Body size will play a major role in predicting response patterns, but identifying all the factors that will contribute to how well dryland mammals facing water and food shortage will cope with increasing heat loads requires a better understanding of the sensitivities and responses of mammals exposed to the direct and indirect effects of climate change.Energy metabolism (encompassing energy assimilation, conversion and utilization) plays a central role in all life processes and serves as a link between the organismal physiology, behavior and ecology. Metabolic rates define the physiological and life-history performance of an organism, have direct implications for Darwinian fitness, and affect ecologically relevant traits such as the trophic relationships, productivity and ecosystem engineering functions. Natural environmental variability and anthropogenic changes expose aquatic ectotherms to multiple stressors that can strongly affect their energy metabolism and thereby modify the energy fluxes within an organism and in the ecosystem. This Review focuses on the role of bioenergetic disturbances and metabolic adjustments in responses to multiple stressors (especially the general cellular stress response), provides examples of the effects of multiple stressors on energy intake, assimilation, conversion and expenditure, and discusses the conceptual and quantitative approaches to identify and mechanistically explain the energy trade-offs in multiple stressor scenarios, and link the cellular and organismal bioenergetics with fitness, productivity and/or ecological functions of aquatic ectotherms.
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