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The impacts of altered biogeochemical cycles on ecological systems are likely to vary with trophic level. Predicting how these changes will affect ecological food webs is further complicated by human activities, which are simultaneously altering the availability of macronutrients like nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), and micronutrients such as sodium (Na). Here we contrast three hypotheses that predict how increasing nutrient availability will shape grassland food webs. Alizarin Red S in vivo We conducted a distributed factorial fertilization experiment (N and P crossed with NaCl) across four North American grasslands, quantifying the responses of aboveground plant biomass and volume, plant tissue and soil elemental concentrations, as well as the abundance of five arthropod functional groups. Fertilization with N and P increased plant biomass and foliar N and P concentrations in grasses but not forbs. Fertilization with Na had no effect on plant biomass but increased foliar Na concentrations. Consistent with the nutrient limitation hypothesis, we found strong evidence of nutrient limitation for insect herbivores across the four sites with sucking (phloem and xylem feeding) herbivores increasing in abundance with NP fertilization and chewing herbivores increasing in response to both Na and NP fertilization, and a trend for increased response of arthropods to lower plant nutrient availability. We found no evidence for an interaction of NaCl and NP on arthropod abundance as predicted by the serial colimitation hypothesis. Finally, consistent with the ecosystem size hypothesis, predator and parasitoid abundances increased with plant volume, but not fertilization. Our results suggest these functional group-specific responses to changes in plant nutrients and structure are key to predicting the future of grassland food webs in an era with increasing use of N and P fertilizers, and increasing terrestrial inputs of Na from road salt, saline irrigation water, and aerosols due to rising sea levels.Single oligodendrocytes produce myelin sheaths around multiple axons in the central nervous system. Interfascicular oligodendrocytes (IOs) facilitate nerve conduction, but their detailed morphologies remain largely unknown. In the present study, we three-dimensionally reconstructed IOs in the corpus callosum of adult mouse using serial block face scanning electron microscopy. The cell bodies of IOs were morphologically polarized and extended thick processes from the cytoplasm-rich part of the cell. Processes originating from the cell body of each IO can be classified into two types one myelinates an axon without branching, while the other type branches and each branch myelinates a distinct axon. Myelin sheaths originating from a particular IO have biased thicknesses, wrapping axons of a limited range of diameters. Consistent with this finding, IOs transduced and visualized with a rabies viral vector expressing GFP showed statistically significant variation in their myelination patterns. We further reconstructed the sheath immediately adjacent to that derived from each of the analyzed IOs; the thicknesses of the pair of sheaths were significantly correlated despite emanating from different IOs. These results suggest that a single axon could regulate myelin sheath thicknesses, even if the sheaths are derived from distinct IOs. Collectively, our results indicate that the IOs have their own myelin profiles defined by myelin thickness and axonal diameter although axons may regulate thickness of myelin sheath.Presented here are new insights into the marine monoraphid diatom genera Schizostauron and Astartiella, based on molecular and morphological data, including descriptions of new species. Although no unambiguous morphological synapomorphies between the two genera are currently recognized, they are closely related by DNA sequence data. Heterovalvate frustules of Schizostauron are characterized by a bifid stauros on the raphe-bearing valve and intricate areolate occlusions on the sternum valve. In Astartiella, the raphe-bearing valve is characterized by a process resembling a fistula by morphology, while the sternum valve presents a particular striation pattern. Observations by light and electron microscopy were made, along with a molecular phylogenetic analysis using a three-gene (SSU, rbcL, and psbC) concatenated dataset. Three new Schizostauron species are described (S. kajotkei, S. rawaii, S. papilliareae), and two new combinations proposed (S. citronella and S. trachyderma) for species that were previously included either in Achnanthes and Cocconeis, respectively. Likewise, six new species of Astartiella (A. almalikii, A. bornmanii, A. chunlianlii, A. marksii, A. persica, and A. wangii) are described. Molecular results exclude Schizostauron and Astartiella from three clades of exclusively monoraphid diatoms, the Achnanthaceae, Cocconeidaceae, and Achnanthidiaceae, instead placing them in the Stauroneidaceae. Morphological features of Schizostauron and Astartiella, such as the stauros, fistula, and coaxial internal proximal raphe endings, are found in other genera in this clade, whereas the only common feature with monoraphid diatoms as whole group is the heterovalvy of frustules.Is it possible to generalize relationships between certain plant traits and soil fertility? In particular, are there quantitative relationships between community-weighted mean (CWM) trait values of leaf dry-matter content (LDMC), specific leaf area (SLA), plant height, and Grime's competitor-stress tolerator-ruderal (CSR) strategy scores and the generalized soil fertility, FG (i.e., the capacity of a soil to produce biomass when all nonsoil variables are held constant) that are generalizable across different species assemblages and geographical areas? We assessed FG in 21 sites in southern Quebec and 7 sites in southern France using a previously published method based on structural equation modeling. We then determined the CWM values of LDMC, SLA, plant height, and CSR scores in the 21 Quebec sites to obtain quantitative relationships between FG and these CWM traits. Using these relationships, we independently tested the generality of the trait-fertility relationships using data from French sites. The relationships between FG and the CWM traits were nonlinear, but displayed the expected qualitative trends as reported in the literature.
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