Notes

Total Activity regarding (+)-3-Deoxyfortalpinoid F, (+)-Fortalpinoid A, along with (+)-Cephinoid H.
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated disease of the central nervous system (CNS) with an estimated prevalence approaching 1 million adults in the United States. The disease pathogenesis and resulting damage express as dysfunction (e.g., walking and cognitive impairment) and symptoms (e.g., fatigue and depression) that compromise quality of life (QOL) and full participation. There has been a steadily increasing body of research on the outcomes of exercise among persons with MS, and this has accelerated sharply over the past decade. The current chapter provides a review of exercise and its outcomes, safety, and prescription in MS. This chapter initially reviews the evidence for benefits of exercise based principally on meta-analyses and literature reviews. The chapter then reviews evidence on the safety of exercise in MS and lastly provides guidelines for exercise prescription in MS. 2,4Thiazolidinedione Collectively, this chapter serves as an overview and reference for researchers and clinicians interested in the benefits, safety, and prescription of exercise in MS.Schizophrenia is a psychiatric disorder characterized by distortions of thinking and perception, with no strictly pathognomonic symptoms that can be divided into positive, negative, and cognitive symptom domains. People with schizophrenia have, between others, a reduced life expectancy and cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness and increased risk of cardiovascular disease, metabolic syndrome, obesity, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia compared to the general population. Furthermore, the economic burden of mental disorders including schizophrenia is evident and it is expected to increase to more than double by 2030. Therefore, reducing the growing burden of mental disorders such as schizophrenia should be a health priority. Improved prevention and treatment are two key factors that may reduce the burden of schizophrenia. Pharmacological- and psychotherapy-based interventions have been traditionally considered for treating schizophrenia disorders; however, there is an increasing amount of scientific evidence confirming that physical activity and physical exercise should be highly considered in prevention and treatment of schizophrenia disorders. In this chapter, we aim to summarize and discuss the research progress of physical activity and exercise in prevention and treatment of schizophrenia disorder. Specifically, we summarized and discussed the research progress of the prognostic use of physical activity for incident schizophrenia; the importance of other outcomes typically improved by physical activity/exercise such as obesity and fitness (cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness) for future schizophrenia; the research progress of the evidence of the benefits of exercise in people with schizophrenia disorders differentiating between effects of exercise on varied health outcomes, cognitive functioning, and cardiorespiratory fitness; and finally the clinical practice recommendations.Several experimental and human studies documented the preventive and therapeutic effects of exercise on various diseases as well as the normal physiological function of different systems during aging. The findings of several basic animal studies and clinical investigations identified the advantageous effects of exercise as non-pharmaceutical intervention on dementia and Alzheimer's disease (AD). The main positive effects suggested for exercise are less cognitive and behavioral impairment or decline, development of health-associated conditions (stress, sleep), reduction of dementia risk factors including chronic non-communicable disease (diabetes, cardiovascular disease), increase in neurotrophins, enhancement of brain blood flow, angiogenesis, neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity in the brain memory-related region (e.g., hippocampus), and reduction of neuroinflammation and apoptosis. However, regarding the controversial evidence in literature, designing standard clinical and experimental studies to reveal the correlation between physical activity and dementia sign and symptom including biomarker alternation, brain supramolecular and molecular changes, and neuropsychological manifestation is necessary for preparation of effective guidelines and recommendations.Parkinson's disease (PD) is an aging-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive motor impairment.The etiology of PD is poorly understood but likely involves both genetic and environmental factors; the management of the disease is still with symptomatic therapy without any interference on the progression of neurodegeneration. In the past two decades, the results of a series of prospective cohort studies suggested that lifestyle factors likely modify the risk of developing PD. Among these, physical activity is known to reduce the risk of a wide range of diseases and conditions, including cardiovascular disease, stroke, and diabetes.Recently, a growing body of evidence has suggested that increased physical activity may also reduce the risk of PD and partly improve motor and non-motor symptoms during the disease course.Here we report the main findings on the effect of physical activity on both mobility and cognition either in animal models of PD or in people with PD. We also highlighted the structural and functional links between gait and cognition by reporting evidence from neuroimaging studies.Depression is a psychiatric disorder characterized by low mood, loss of interest/enjoyment, and reduced energy and one of the five leading causes of disability and a major contributor to all-cause mortality worldwide. People with depression have, between others, a reduced life expectancy, worse quality of life and cardiorespiratory fitness, and increased risk of type 2 diabetes, compared to the general population. Furthermore, the economic burden of mental disorders including depression is evident, and it is expected to increase to more than double by 2030. Therefore, reducing the growing burden of mental disorders such as depression should be a health priority. Improved prevention and treatment are two key factors that may reduce the burden of depression. Pharmacological- and psychotherapy-based interventions have been traditionally considered for treating depression disorders; however, there is an increasing amount of scientific evidence confirming that physical activity and physical exercise should be highly considered in prevention and treatment of depressive disorders.
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