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Electronic digital volume link examination of polylactic acid dependent fused filament fabrication published compounds.
Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) are a promising therapy for inflammatory diseases. However, MSC are large and become trapped in the lungs after intravenous infusion, where they have a short survival time. To steer MSC immunoregulatory therapy beyond the lungs, we generated nm-sized particles from MSC membranes (membrane particles, MP), which have immunomodulatory properties, and investigated their internalization and mode of interaction in macrophages subtypes and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) under control and inflammatory conditions. We found that macrophages and HUVEC take up MP in a dose, time, and temperature-dependent manner. Specific inhibitors for endocytotic pathways revealed that MP internalization depends on heparan sulfate proteoglycan-, dynamin-, and clathrin-mediated endocytosis but does not involve caveolin-mediated endocytosis. MP uptake also involved the actin cytoskeleton and phosphoinositide 3-kinase, which are implicated in macropinocytosis and phagocytosis. Anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages take up more MP than pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages. In contrast, inflammatory conditions did not affect the MP uptake by HUVEC. Moreover, MP induced both anti- and pro-inflammatory responses in macrophages and HUVEC by affecting gene expression and cell surface proteins. Our findings on the mechanisms of uptake of MP under different conditions help the development of target-cell specific MP therapy to modulate immune responses.Background and Aims Emerging evidence has revealed that innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) play a key role in regulating metabolic disorders. Here, we investigated the role of group 3 ILCs (ILC3s) in the modulation of Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Methods RORγ gfp/gfp (RORgt KI/KI) and Rag2-/- mice with the administration of A213, RORgt antagonist, fed with a high-fat-diet (HFD) for 12 weeks, were used. We performed flow cytometry, real time PCR, and lipidomics analysis of serum and liver, and used RAW264.7 cells and murine primary hepatocytes in vitro. Results HFD increased ILC3s and M1 macrophages in the liver, and RORgt KI/KI mice deficient in ILC3 showed significant fatty liver, liver fibrosis and significantly increased palmitic acid levels in serum and liver. In addition, administration of A213 to Rag2-/- mice caused significant fatty liver, liver fibrosis, and a significant increase in serum and liver palmitate concentrations, as in RORgt KI/KI mice. Addition of palmitc acid stimulated IL-23 production in cell experiments using RAW264.7. IL-22 produced by ILC3s inhibited the palmitate-induced apoptosis of primary hepatocytes. Akt inhibitor Conclusions HFD stimulates IL-23 production by M1 macrophages, thus promoting ILC3 proliferation, whereas IL-22 secreted by ILC3s contributes to the upregulation of hepatic lipid metabolism and has anti-apoptosis activity.Humanized mouse models are attractive experimental models for analyzing the development and functions of human dendritic cells (DCs) in vivo. Although various types of DC subsets, including DC type 3 (DC3s), have been identified in humans, it remains unclear whether humanized mice can reproduce heterogeneous DC subsets. CD14, classically known as a monocyte/macrophage marker, is reported as an indicator of DC3s. We previously observed that some CD14+ myeloid cells expressed CD1c, a pan marker for bona fide conventional DC2 (cDC2s), in humanized mouse models in which human FLT3L and GM-CSF genes were transiently expressed using in vivo transfection (IVT). Here, we aimed to elucidate the identity of CD14+CD1c+ DC-like cells in humanized mouse models. We found that CD14+CD1c+ cells were phenotypically different from cDC2s; CD14+CD1c+ cells expressed CD163 but not CD5, whereas cDC2s expressed CD5 but not CD163. Furthermore, CD14+CD1c+ cells primed and polarized naïve CD4+ T cells toward IFN-γ+ Th1 cells more profoundly than cDC2s. Transcriptional analysis revealed that CD14+CD1c+ cells expressed several DC3-specific transcripts, such as CD163, S100A8, and S100A9, and were clearly segregated from cDC2s and monocytes. When lipopolysaccharide was administered to the humanized mice, the frequency of CD14+CD1c+ cells producing IL-6 and TNF-α was elevated, indicating a pro-inflammatory signature. Thus, humanized mice are able to sustain development of functional CD14+CD1c+ DCs, which are equivalent to DC3 subset observed in humans, and they could be useful for analyzing the development and function of DC3s in vivo.Background Multiple sclerosis (MS) patients are protected from relapses during pregnancy and have an increased relapse risk after delivery. It is unknown how pregnancy controls disease-contributing CD4+ T helper (Th) cells and whether this differs in MS patients who experience a postpartum relapse. Here, we studied the effector phenotype of Th cells in relation to pregnancy and postpartum relapse occurrence in MS. Methods Memory skewing and activation of effector Th subsets were analyzed in paired third trimester and postpartum blood of 19 MS patients with and without a postpartum relapse and 12 healthy controls. Ex vivo results were associated with circulating levels of pregnancy-induced hormones and mirrored in vitro by exposing proliferating Th cells to corresponding serum samples. Results Based on HSNE-guided analyses, we found that effector memory proportions of Th cells were increased in postpartum vs. third trimester samples from MS patients without a postpartum relapse. This was not seen for relapsing patients or healthy controls. CXCR3 was upregulated on postpartum memory Th cells, except for relapsing patients. These changes were verified by adding sera from the same individuals to proliferating Th cells, but did not associate with third trimester cortisol, estradiol or progesterone levels. For relapsing patients, activated memory Th cells of both third trimester and postpartum samples produced higher levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Conclusion Effector Th cells are differentially regulated during pregnancy in MS patients, likely via serum-related factors beyond the studied hormones. The pro-inflammatory state of memory Th cells during pregnancy may predict a postpartum relapse.
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