Notes

Chapter 15 Assignment:
1. The Mongol Empire greatly affected much of Europe and Asia, the latter of which was conquered in many areas. The Mongols were able to create safe trade and stability between the two regions, but inadvertently encouraged the spread of the Black Plague. The Mongols ended or interrupted the great postclassical empires while extending the world network of that era. They were the definition of regional and interregional interactions because all they did was conquer lands and increase trade and commerce between all of Eurasia. The Mongol empire promoted trade and cultural exchanges among civilizations and brought stable government and religious toleration to much of Asia which was a major turning point in human history.

2. During the Mongol reign, males held dominant leadership positions and women held considerable influence within the family, which wasn't the norm in the other successful empires of the classical and post-classical period. Leaders were elected by free males. They gained their positions through courage and diplomatic skills and maintained authority as long as they were successful. They did this instead of utilizing the examination system and they didn't have term limits, which was new to the post-classical period. Another difference was the power that the artisans and scholars received. In urban centers, they freely worked and because of this commerce flourished along secure trade routes. In other empires, they didn't receive a lot of credit nor a lot of social status either.

3. After surviving defeat and capture, Temujin gained strength among the Mongols through alliances with more powerful groups. After defeating his rivals he was elected supreme ruler of all Mongol tribes, and named Chinggis Khan. The speed and mobility of Mongol armies, when joined to the discipline brought by Chinggis Khan, made them the world's best military. Harsh discipline , enforced through a formal code, brought punishments and rewards for conduct. Chinggis Khan was responsible for setting all the rules in place. He created a strong army that his descendants built off of. They learned from his clever tactics and grew off of the land that he had originally conquered. He had started the original revolution and without him the Mongols wouldn't have been as successful as they were.

4. By the time of Kubilai's death, the Yuan dynasty was weakening. Song loyalists in the south revolted. Mongol expeditions against Japan failed. Other Mongol forces were defeated in Vietnam and Java. Kubilai's successors lacked talent and Yuan administration became corrupt. By the 1350s, the dynasty was too weak to control all of China. Famines stimulated local rising.s Secret societies dedicated to the overthrow of the dynasty formed. Rivals rebels fought each other. Many Mongols returned to central Asia.

5. The Russians became vassals of the khan of the Golden Horde, a domination lasting for two and half centuries. Russian princes paid tribute. Peasants had to meet demands from both their own princes and the Mongols. Many sought protection by becoming serfs. The decisions inaugurate and major change in rural social structures as serfdom endured. Some cities, especially Moscow, benefited from the increased commercial possibilities brought by Mongol rule. The metropolitan of Moscow was made the head of the Russian Orthodox church. Their example influenced military and political organization. Most significantly, the Mongols isolated Russia from developments in western European civilization.

6. Chinese were forbidden from learning the Mongol script and intermarriage was prohibited. Kubilai refused to reestablish exams for the civil service. A new social structure emerged in China. The Mongols were at the top with their nomadic and Islamic allies directly below them. Both groups dominated the highest levels of administration. Beneath them came first the north Chinese, and then ethnic Chinese and peoples of the south. They brought much new knowledge into the Chinese world. Kubilai was interested in all religions; Buddhists, Nestorian and Latin Christians, Daoists and Muslims were all present at court. The ethnic Chinese, the vast majority of Kubilai's subjects, were never reconciled to Mongol rule. The scholar-gentry regarded Mongols are uncouth barbarians with policies endangering Chinese traditions.

7. The Mongol expansion throughout the Asian continent from around 1207 to 1360 helped bring political stability and re-established the Silk Road (via Karakorum). It also brought an end to the dominance of the Islamic Caliphate over world trade. Because the Mongols came to control the trade routes, trade circulated throughout the region, though they never abandoned their nomadic lifestyle. From the Il-Khan in the Middle East to the Yuan Dynasty in China, Mongol rulers established order, and most importantly, provided the stage for intensified international contact. Protected by Mongol might, the trade routes carried new foods, inventions, and ideas from one civilization to others, with nomadic people acting as intermediaries. As Eurasians traveled over long distances, they not only exchanged goods and ideas, but they unwittingly helped disease to spread as well.

8. Christian western Europe initially had been pleased by Mongol successes against Islam. The attitude changed when the Mongols moved westward. They invaded Hungary and raided widely in central and southeastern Europe. Europe escaped more serious invasion when the death of Ogedei, plus the resulting succession struggle, forced Batu to withdraw. Satisfied with their rich conquests in Asia and the Middle East, the Mongols did not return to Europe. Trade and cultural contact between the different civilizations throughout Eurasia became much easier. The trading empires established in their dominions by Venetians and Genoese provided experience useful for later European expansion. An unintended consequence was the possible transmitting of the fleas carrying the bubonic plague from China and central Asia to the Middle East and Europe.

9. Mongol women remained aloof from Confucian Chinese culture. They refused to adopt foot binding, and retained rights to property and control in the household, and freedom of movement. Some Mongol women hunted and went to war, whereas Chinese women were stuck at home barely able to move. The Mongol interlude in China was too brief, and Mongol numbers too small, to change Confucian patterns. The freedom of women declined under Kubilai's successors. A new social structure emerged in China. The Mongols were at the top and their nomadic and Islamic allies were directly below them. Both groups dominated the highest levels of the administration. Beneath them came first the north Chinese and then the ethnic Chinese and peoples of the south.

10. Despite the measures protecting Mongol culture, Kubilai was fascinated by Chinese civilization. He adopted much from their culture into his court; the capital was in Chinese style. They acquired the use of new military weapons like gunpowder from countries like China. The Golden Horde converted to Islam when they took over the Islamic Heartlands. The Mongols borrowed Chinese institutions and practices to govern their vast empire. After the death of Chinggis Khan, the Mongols were divided up into sectors and they conquered different parts of Eurasia. Due to this, each group adapted some of the cultural features of the people that they conquered.

11. Due to the fact that the Mongols lived in the steppe, they were forced to conquer other lands. The steppes were a completely barren land, that had absolutely nothing on it. Barely any trees, water sources or resources in general were found there. The Mongols captured other lands and resources because of the lack of their own. Had they lived in a more resourceful and arable land, they might have not conquered so many people. They had very limited source of food as agriculture was very rare in those areas. They were nomadic herders of goats and sheep who lived off, and traded, the products of their animals. Because of this, they also had very loose gender roles because there was barely any agriculture involved.

12. Both Pax Romana and Pax Mongolia are terms which have been coined by historians. Both refer to a period of relative political stability, unified imperial administrations and a growth in trade facilitated by the stability and standardized administration. In fact, the term Pax Mongolia was coined in parallel with the term Pax Romana. The preconditions for the Pax Romana were created by Augustus who became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire and its first emperor and absolute ruler. He created a strong grip of power and the state by one man. This led the mentioned relative political stability. The conquests of the Mongol Khans in Asia and Eastern Europe created the second largest empire in history. Khan's military strength and grip on power ensured relative political stability. Similarly to the Pax Romana, were the Roman Empire developed thriving trading networks like the Silk Roads.

Chinggis Khan and the Rise of the Mongols:
1. The Secret History serves to explain a lot about the daily life and beliefs of the Mongols. The anda bond formed between Temujin and Jamugha serves to exemplify the tight bonds Mongols formed and the importance they placed in loyalty and brotherhood. Loyalty also comes into play when the council of elders elects Chinggis as Khan. Also, the story of Chinggis Khan’s mother Hogelun Ujin’s struggle to care for her children after they are shunned from the tribe shows the great importance the Mongol’s placed on family.

2. The "in house" history presents the Mongols in a very a positive manner. For example the anda bond that they formed, the loyalty that the Mongols had towards their leader, the ability to overcome obstacles, the peaceful selection of their leader. On the other hand the modern historians would explain the history of the Mongols in a more factual manner. They would also show the pros and cons of the Mongols instead of being just one sided.

3. The Mongols didn’t have a written language so ordinary people probably learned “Secret History” orally. “Secret History” is in the form of a story which suggest that it was told by word of mouth. Evidence of the importance of oral tradition among the Mongols is seen in the Anda when they keep declaring themselves as Anda. Tradition was passed on from generation to generation. Ordinary Mongols learned the secret history from their relatives who passed it on by word of mouth.

4. The secret history might be seen as a myth. This is because it promotes a good life style with such things as anda bond. It was a way of promoting unity. It is like other myths because other ones also promote unity, like the Greek god myths (Eros), whose power can be compared to the powerful Chinggis Khan.

The Tartars by Marco Polo-
The Tartars moved from place to place seeking fresh pastures for their herds and flocks. Their shelters were portable. They ate mostly meat and milk. The men devoted most of their time to hunting and soldiering, and they were allowed to have several wives. Wealthy Tartars dressed in silks and sable skins. Tartar warriors showed great obedience, fortitude, and bravery.

The Conqueror: Genghis Khan-
During the night after the first battle, Genghis Khan and his army surrounded Samarkand, trapping their opponents inside the city. Then the people of Samarkand became divided. Some wanted to fight, and others wanted to surrender. Fearing the Mongols, the townspeople decided not to resist and opened the city gates. The Samarkand soldiers continued to fight, but they were no match for the Mongols.