Notes

The concept of time can be difficult to grasp, especially when it covers multiple millennia, as human history does. By organizing our history around key events, we can better understand it. For example, the birth of Jesus is a key event that is recognized by much of the world. The years before Jesus’s birth are labeled as BC, or before Christ. They can also be labeled as BCE, or before Common Era. The years after Jesus’s birth are labeled as AD, or anno Domini, which is Latin for in the year of our Lord. These years can also be labeled as CE, or Common Era. Like a number line with negative numbers to the left and positive numbers to the right, the timeline of human history is divided. BC and BCE dates ascend to the left of Jesus’s birth, like negative numbers on a number line. AD and CE dates ascend to the right of Jesus’s birth, like positive numbers.

Egypt’s First Dynasty, the first recorded Olympic games in Greece, and Julius Caesar’s assassination are events that took place before the birth of Jesus. Therefore, they are labeled BCE. The construction of the Roman Pantheon, the discovery of Iceland by the Vikings, and Isaac Newton’s publication of his laws of gravity and motion are events that took place after the birth of Jesus. Therefore, they are labeled CE.

Trying to remember the order of events in history can be complicated. To make this easier, people can keep dates and historical events in order using a timeline. A timeline is a line with dates or events that shows the passage of time. The timeline below, for example, shows some of the major events in the United States during the twentieth century. Notice how the events are in chronological order. This means the first event comes first, followed by each event in the order they happened.

The Byzantine Empire emerged from the Eastern Roman Empire. The capital of the empire, Constantinople, was built near the Bosporus Strait.
• This location linked Constantinople to both the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, and it placed the city at the center of an important trade network.
• As the successors of the Roman Empire, the Byzantines retained some elements of Roman culture, but they spoke Greek and practiced Christianity.

The Byzantine Empire reached its height under Justinian and Theodora.
• Justinian was from a poor peasant family but became emperor in 527.
• He expanded the territory of the empire, codified laws, and oversaw a period of prosperity.
• Theodora was an unusually powerful empress. She appointed imperial officials, met with foreign envoys, and advocated for rights and protections for women.

The death of Justinian, deadly plague, and a struggling economy weakened the Byzantine Empire, making it vulnerable to attacks.

While much of the empire was conquered, Constantinople remained under Byzantine control for over 1,000 years.
• Thick walls, Greek fire, and the geographic location of the city helped repel most invaders.
• In 1453, Turkish Ottomans successfully conquered the city, and the Byzantine Empire ended.