Notes

For 300 years, the Philippines was a colony of Spain. Until 1821, when the Mexicans revolted and won independence from Spain, the Philippines was dependent on Mexico, being administered by the Viceroy in the name of the King. From 1821 to 1898, the country was a distinct governmental unit under the direct control of the home government in Madrid. The King issued cedulas or resident certificates for the administration of the colony and appointed a governor, members of the Royal Audiencia (the Supreme Court then), and other high officials.
Spanish laws. Except for three brief periods (1810-1813, 1820-1823, and 1834- 1837), the Philippines did not enjoy the benefits of the Spanish Constitution and the privilege of representation to the Spanish Cortes. Special laws, which consisted of royal decrees, proclamations, and laws of Spain extended to the Philippines by royal sanction, governed the colony. Among the Spanish laws applied to the Philippines were the following: Laws of the Indies, the code of Spanish legislation; Siete Partidas, a compilation of Spanish laws; Leyes de Toro, which dealt with wills and succession; and Novisima Recopilacion, which related to all branches of law.
The governor-general. As head of the centralized government established by Spain in the country, the governor-general symbolized the might and majesty of the Spanish Crown. He was appointed and removed from office by the King. He exercised all kinds of leadership and power: executive, military, judicial, and religious. In his capacity as governor, he had the right to control and to supervise administrative offices, and to appoint officials not named by the King. As captain-general, he was commander-in-chief of all armed forces. He was the president of the Royal Audiencia and was in charge of ecclesiastical matters, as he assumed, in principle, ecclesiastical authority over church offices and missions.
The Royal Audiencia. The first Royal Audiencia was created in 1583 to restrict the powers of the governor-general and to protect the people from the abuses of officials. It was composed of the governor-general as the president, three justices, a prosecuting attorney, and other officials. But because the governor-general and justices were in constant quarrel, the Royal Audiencia bowed out in 1589. It was restored in 1595 when the presidency was given to a regent, instead of the governor. The Audiencia was the Supreme Court and also ran the government whenever the governing office was vacant.
The encomienda system. After the conquest of the country, there was no definite organization in provincial and local governments. Following the Laws of the Indies, Legazpi divided the country into parcels, each parcel assigned to a deserving Spanish national for administration and care. A parcel, including the inhabitants living therein, was called encomienda, and its administrator was the encomendero. The encomendero took care of the temporal and spiritual welfare of the natives, such as the need to be taught the Christian religion and be protected from harm both in their person and property. The laws related to the encomiendas let loose many evils and abuses. Filipinos were disgruntled over their encomenderos' excesses to a point that the system had to be abolished in the Philippines in 1674. The flawed system of the encomienda crumbled in other colonies as well.
Tribute and forced labor. From 1565, when Legazpi arrived in the country, to 1884, the Filipinos paid tribute to Spain. The rate was originally eight reales but was raised to ten in 1602, then to 12 in 1851. One tribute was equivalent to one family consisting of a man, his wife, and their minor children. Every unmarried man aged over 20 years and every unmarried woman over 25 years paid half a tribute. The encomenderos profited greatly in tribute collection.
The people's vassalage to Spain was manifested also in their forced labor. This was compulsory for all natives from 16 to 60 years of age. The people worked in the building and repair of roads and bridges, cut timber in the forests, and labored in foundries and shipyards. The Filipinos were greatly oppressed because they never got paid for their services, and they were even robbed of their rations by the officials.
Abolition of slavery. One of the greatest achievements of Spain that spilled over to the Philippine colony was the abolition of slavery. The Laws of the Indies prohibited and penalized slavery in all Spanish colonies. The King of Spain issued a decree ordering the emancipation of all slaves in the country. The Papal Bull of 1591, which threatened to excommunicate those who would not liberate their slaves, strengthened
this.
The galleon trade. In the early days of the Spanish regime, Manila was the commercial center of the Orient. The strategic position and geographic location of Manila suited her to be the Emporium of Far Eastern Trade and the Mistress of Oriental Marts. Commerce expanded so fast that there was increased demand for Spanish ships to carry Oriental wares to Mexico. Because of mercantilist doctrines of Europe at the time, Spain had to restrict trade between the Philippines and Mexico for two centuries. This monopoly of trade was known as the galleon trade or the Manila- Acapulco Trade. Many of the ships were made and launched in the Philippines because Filipinos were both skilled shipbuilders and inborn sailors.
By 1815, the galleon trade had declined and was no longer lucrative due to the many sailing risks, such as mutiny and piracy on the high seas. Furthermore, Mexico had revolted against Spain, so the trade was officially abolished in the same year. The galleon trade adversely affected the Filipino economic life because the other money-earning industries were neglected in the attempt to promote commerce with other Oriental countries.
Provincial and municipal government. For purposes of internal government and administration, the country was divided into provinces and districts according to the dialects spoken by the inhabitants. A province was known as alcaldia and the executive was called alcalde mayor. A district was known as corregimiento that is under a politico-military officer called Corregidor. The alcalde exercised both executive and judicial functions, and supervised the collection of tribute in the province. He was appointed by the governor-general and received very little salary, but his office was highly lucrative because of his privilege to engage in trade.
The provinces were divided into pueblos, each under a gobernadorcillo but ordinarily called capitan. The other town officials were the chiefs of police, deputies or tenientes, and other functionaries called alguaciles. Pueblos were divided into barangays each under a cabeza de barangay. A cabeza paid no tribute and after serving for sometime he became a member of the aristocracy, the principalia. The chief duty of the cabeza was to collect taxes in his barangay.
Ecclesiastical Administration
For ecclesiastical administration, the country was divided into dioceses, parishes, and missions. The country as a whole was a diocese. When Manila was raised into a diocese, the bishoprics of Cebu, Nueva Caceres, and Nueva Segovia became sufragan dioceses. The archbishop was the head of the ecclesiastical administration, and under him were the bishops who were heads of the dioceses, and the parish priests who were in charge of the parishes. The Church exercised religious, political, and judicial functions. Political functions came out of the union of the Church and State. Clergymen enjoyed political power and prestige because of such functions. The Archbishop's Court and the Holy Inquisition discharged judicial functions. The Court tried cases of heresy and those involving the clergy.
Contributions of the Spanish missionaries. Spanish missionaries were both evangelists and civil workers. Aside from introducing Christianity, specifically Catholicism, they planted the seed of European civilization in the country. The missionaries founded towns out of the lowland wildernesses and crude settlements. The pueblos that they established exist up to the present as thriving centers of population and culture.
The missionaries were also builders of roads, bridges, ports, irrigation dams, and other public works. They introduced new plants and animals, and taught new industries and crafts.
The Jesuits introduced silk cultivation and manufacture. The Augustinians started the cattle industry in Nueva Ecija and the cultivation of indigo and corn in Rizal and Ilocos. The Franciscans taught the people how to cultivate coffee and discovered iron and copper deposits in Laguna. The Dominicans introduced the lime and brick industries.
The pioneer missionaries were the first educators of the Filipinos. They founded the first schools and colleges, many of which still stand today as centers of Catholic education in the Pacific. They established the first printing press and trained Filipinos in the trade, notably Tomas Pinpin, the prince of Filipino printers.
The religious orders in their convents and schools established the first libraries and museums. They also founded asylums, orphanages, and hospitals. Early colleges served as home to abandoned children.
The friars deserve praise for their contributions to the arts and sciences. Many of the early missionaries were distinguished musicians and music teachers. The churches built in Manila and in the provinces are now priceless collections of Philippine architecture. Convents became schools of the arts where the Filipinos were taught the rudiments of painting and sculpture.
One of the greatest bequests and legacies of the missionaries was the Observatory of Manila founded by the Jesuit Fathers in 1865. It gained apperception for its accurate forecasting of typhoons and certain types of earthquakes. The first sundials were constructed in the churchyard of Tagudin, Ilocos Sur, which gave almost perfect time in those days.
The Church and the State. In the Philippines, as in other Spanish colonies, the Church and the State were united as one. Civil authority came from the governor- general and members of the Royal Audiencia who were representatives of the King.
On the other hand, the ecclesiastical authority came from the archbishop and friars who were representatives of the Pope. They also represented the King, however, in the preservation of Spanish sovereignty. The Church was financially supported by the State - the State paid the salaries of clergymen and defrayed the expenses of the ecclesiastical administration.
The archbishop acted and served as the governor-general in times when the government was unoccupied. Church dignitaries wielded political power, as the priests were both curate and also power behind the town officials.
The union of the Church and State worked well in theory but not in practice, because there was always rivalry for supremacy between the civil authority, in the person of the governor on one hand, and the religious, in the person of the archbishop on the other.
Filipino Revolts Against Spain
Many of the revolts against Spain were caused by the people's desire to win back their lost freedom. Spanish oppression, the hated tribute, and forced labor specifically spurred other revolts. A few were purely economic in nature, having been caused by agrarian disputes with the first friars. The friars converted lands, which were considered by the people as their own, into large haciendas. The people felt the injustices done, so they rose up and fought for their rights. Many of the uprisings started in Cavite, Batangas, Laguna, and Rizal.
Lakandula, the last King of Manila, led the first Filipino revolt in 1574. Lakandula used to be one of Spain's local allies, and it was he who welcomed Legazpi at Manila Bay in 1571. After Legazpi's death, the Spaniards did not keep the promises exempting Lakandula and his people from tribute and forced labor. The people were maltreated, so they rose up in arms against the Spaniards. When the Spaniards learned of this, they went to Lakandula and promised to give the Filipinos better treatment if they would desist from the armed insurrection. The revolt was stopped and Lakandula remained faithful to Spain until his death. He became a Christian, and one of his sons became an Augustinian friar, the first Filipino to become one.
Other revolts ensued but ended in failure. One good thing Filipinos proved in launching such revolts was the unquenchable spirit to fight against oppression and colonial yoke.