Notes

Interpretacja “Wielkiej Improwizacji”
Adaptation is increasingly being presented as having mitigation co-benefits in the Brazilian Amazon (Gregorio et al., 2016)536, especially within ecosystem-based adaptation (Locatelli et al., 2011)537. In Peru’s Framework Law for Climate Change, every governmental sector will consider climatic conditions as potential risks and/or opportunities to promote economic development and to szkic adaptation. New York, United States: Adaptation plans are undertaken across government levels, sectors and departments (NYC Parks, 2010; Vision 2020 Project Team, 2011; PlaNYC, 2013)543, and have been advanced by an expert science panel that is obligated by local city law to provide regular updates on policy-relevant climate science (NPCC, 2015)544. Federal initiatives include 2013’s Rebuild By Design competition to promote resilience through infrastructural projects (HSRTF, 2013)545. In 2013 the Mayor’s office, in response to Hurricane Sandy, published the city’s adaptation strategy (PlaNYC, 2013)546. In 2015, the OneNYC Plan for a Strong and Just City (OneNYC Team, 2015)547 laid out a strategy for urban planning through a justice and equity lens. This box presents four case studies from different social-ecological systems as examples of risks of 1.5°C warming and higher (Chapter 3); adaptation options that respond to these risks (Chapter 4); and their implications for poverty, livelihoods and sustainability (Chapter 5). It is not yet possible to generalize adaptation effectiveness across regions due więc i lack of empirical studies and monitoring and evaluation of current efforts.

The Arctic is undergoing the most rapid climate change globally (Larsen et al., 2014)494, warming by 1.9°C over the last 30 years (Walsh, 2014; Grosse et al., 2016)495. For 2°C of global warming relative to pre-industrial levels, chances of an ice-free Arctic during summer are substantially higher than at 1.5°C (see Chapter 3, Sections 3.3.5 and 3.3.8), with permafrost melt, increased instances of storm surge, and extreme weather events anticipated along with later ice freeze up, earlier break up, and a longer ice-free open water season (Bring et al., 2016; DeBeer et al., 2016; Jiang et al., 2016; Chadburn et al., 2017; Melvin et al., 2017)496. Negative impacts on health, infrastructure, and economic sectors (AMAP, 2017a, b, 2018)497 are projected, although the extension of the summer ocean-shipping season has potential economic opportunities (Ford et al., 2015b; Dawson et al., 2016; K.Y et al. Extreme weather, linked to tropical storms and hurricanes, represent one of the largest risks facing Caribbean island nations (Chapter 3, Section 3.4.5.3). Non-economic damages include detrimental health impacts, forced displacement and destruction of cultural heritages. Cuba: Together with a robust physical infrastructure and human-resource base (Kirk, 2017)513, Cuba has implemented an effective civil defence system for emergency preparedness and disaster response, centred around community mobilization and preparedness (Kirk, 2017)514. Legislation to manage disasters, an efficient and robust early warning system, emergency stockpiles, adequate shelter system and continuous training and education of the population help create a ‘culture of risk’ (Isayama and Ono, 2015; Lizarralde et al., 2015)515 which reduces vulnerability to extreme events (Pichler and Striessnig, 2013)516. Cuba’s infrastructure is still susceptible to devastation, as seen in the aftermath of the 2017 hurricane season.

Different vulnerability levels across the UKOT (Lam et al., 2015)518 indicate the benefits of greater regional cooperation and capacity-building, not only within UKOT, but throughout the Caribbean (Forster et al., 2011)519. While sovereign states in the region can directly access climate funds and international support, Dependent Territories are reliant on their controlling states (Bishop and Payne, 2012)520. There tends to be low-scale management for environmental issues in UKOT, which increases UKOT’s vulnerability. Kampala, Uganda: Kampala Capital City Authority (KCCA) has the statutory responsibility for managing the city. Jamaica: Disaster management is coordinated through a hierarchy of national, parish and community disaster committees under the leadership of the Office of Disaster Preparedness and Emergency Management (ODPEM). United Kingdom Overseas Territories (UKOT): All UKOT have developed National Disaster Preparedness Plans (PAHO/WHO, 2016)517 and are part of the Caribbean Disaster Risk Management Program which aims to improve disaster risk management within the health sector. Climate policy in many Amazonian nations has focused on forests as carbon sinks (Soares-Filho et al., 2010)535. In 2009, the Brazilian National Policy on Climate Change acknowledged adaptation as i concern, and the government sought to mainstream adaptation into public administration. To improve climate change governance in the region, Pittman et al.


2015)525 suggest incorporating holistic and integrated management systems, improving flexibility in collaborative processes, implementing monitoring programs, and increasing the capacity of local authorities. Despite a shared vulnerability arising from commonalities in location, circumstance and size (Bishop and Payne, 2012; Nurse et al., 2014)512, adaptation approaches are nuanced by differences in climate governance, affecting vulnerability and adaptive capacity (see Section 4.4.1). Three cases exemplify differences in disaster risk management. Tytuł: Boży bojownicy. wypracowania Cykl o Reynevanie. Boży bojownicy. wypracowania Cykl o Reynevanie. Narrenturm. Zestaw o Reynevanie. Tytuł: Lux perpetua. Zestaw o Reynevanie. Lux perpetua. Zestaw o Reynevanie. 3 ust. 2a uchwały o pdof. 27 ust. 1b pkt 1 ustawy o pdof, tj. 46,33 zł (jeżeli zatrudniony przed pierwszą zapłatą honorarium w roku podatkowym schowa mu PIT-2) i pobraną ze leków podatnika składkę zdrowotną (nie moc niż 7,75% podstawy aspektu tej ofiary). 12 ust. 1 ustawy o pdof, pomniejszonego o podobne kursy pozyskania wpływu a potrącone przez siebie w znanym miesiącu ze preparatów podatnika darowizny na ubezpieczenia społeczne. Przychody gościa w jednostce innej oblicza się przy ostatnim na świetne według kursu średniego NBP z ubiegłego dnia codziennego poprzedzającego dzień otrzymania przychodu (art. Do wpływów (przychodów) zajmowanych na pole Nasz określa się w specyfiki dochody (przychody) z praktyce wytwarzanej na jej miejscu na przyczynie układzie służbowego, stosunku produkcji, pracy chałupniczej oraz wspólnego stosunku produkcji, bez względu na siedzenie stawki wynagrodzenia. szkoła

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