Notes

Renewable Energy Land Acquisition
Management of Renewable Energies and Environmental Protection, Part I
Abstract: The purpose of this project is to present an overview of renewable energy sources,Guest Posting major technological developments and case studies, accompanied by applicable examples of the use of sources. Renewable energy is the energy that comes from natural resources: The wind, sunlight, rain, sea waves, tides, geothermal heat, regenerated naturally, automatically. Greenhouse gas emissions pose a serious threat to climate change, with potentially disastrous effects on humanity. The usage of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) as well as improved Energy Efficiency (EE) can donate to reducing energy consumption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and, as a consequence, preventing dangerous climate change. At least one-third of global energy must come from different renewable sources by 2050: The wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, biomass, etc. Oil and gas, classical resources of energy, have fluctuating developments on the international market. Another significant aspect is distributed by the increasingly limited nature of oil resources. It appears that this energy source will be exhausted in about 50 years from the intake of oil reserves in exploitation or prospecting. "Green" energy is at the fingertips of both economic operators and individuals. Actually, an economic operator can use this type of system for both own consumption and energy trading on the domestic energy market. The high cost of deploying these systems is generally depreciated in about 5-10 years, with respect to the installed production capacity. The "sustainability" condition is met when projects predicated on renewable energy have a negative CO2 or at the very least neutral CO2 on the life cycle. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are among the environmental criteria included in a sustainability analysis, but is not enough. The idea of sustainability must also use in the assessment several other aspects, such as for example environmental, cultural, health, but must integrate economic aspects. Renewable energy generation in a sustainable way is really a challenge that will require compliance with national and international regulations. Energy independence may be accomplished: - Large scale (for communities); - small-scale (for individual houses, vacation homes or cabins without electrical connection).

Keywords: Environmental Protection, Renewable Energy, Sustainable Energy, The Wind, Sunlight, Rain, Sea Waves, Tides, Geothermal Heat, Regenerated Naturally.



Introduction

The purpose of this project is to present an overview of renewable energy sources, major technological developments and case studies, associated with applicable examples of the use of sources.

Renewable energy may be the energy that comes from natural resources: The wind, sunlight, rain, sea waves, tides, geothermal heat, regenerated naturally, automatically.

Greenhouse gas emissions pose a serious threat to climate change, with potentially disastrous effects on humanity. The use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) together with improved Energy Efficiency (EE) can contribute to reducing energy consumption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and, as a result, preventing dangerous climate change.


At the very least one-third of global energy must result from different renewable sources by 2050: The wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, biomass, etc.

Oil and gas, classical sources of energy, have fluctuating developments on the international market. A second significant aspect is given by the increasingly limited nature of oil resources. It seems that this energy source will be exhausted in about 50 years from the consumption of oil reserves in exploitation or prospecting.

"Green" energy is at the fingertips of both economic operators and people.

Actually, an economic operator may use such a system for both own consumption and energy trading on the domestic energy market. The high cost of deploying these systems is normally depreciated in about 5-10 years, with regards to the installed production capacity.

The "sustainability" condition is met when projects predicated on renewable energy have a negative CO2 or at least neutral CO2 on the life cycle.

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are among the environmental criteria contained in a sustainability analysis, but is not enough. The concept of sustainability must also include in the assessment various other aspects, such as for example environmental, cultural, health, but must integrate economic aspects.

Renewable energy generation in a sustainable way is really a challenge that requires compliance with national and international regulations.

Energy independence can be achieved:

Large scale (for communities)
Small-scale (for individual houses, vacation homes or cabins without electrical connection)
Today, the renewable energy has gained an avant-garde and a great development also thanks to governments and international organizations which have finally begun to understand its imperative necessity for humanity, in order to avoid crises and wars, to maintain a modern life (we can?t get back to caves).



Materials and Methods

Solar Energy

Solar energy means the power that is directly made by the transfer of light energy radiated by the Sun into other styles of energy. This could be used to generate electricity or to heat the air and water. Although solar energy is renewable and an easy task to produce, the primary problem is that sunlight will not provide constant energy over each day, depending on the day-night alternation, weather conditions, season.

SOLAR POWER PANELS generate electricity approx. 9h/day (the calculation is minimal, the winter is 9 h), feeding the consumers and charging the batteries at the same time.

Solar installations are of two types: Thermal and photovoltaic.

Photovoltaics produce electricity directly, thermal ones assist in saving 75% of other fuels (wood, gas) per year. A house that has both solar installations (with photovoltaic and vacuum thermal panels) can be considered "energy independence" (as the energy accumulated in the day is then sent to the grid and used as needed).

Using solar radiation for the production of electricity can be carried out by several methods:

Using photovoltaic modules - by capturing the power of the photons coming from the sun and storing it in free electrons, thereby generating a power current, solar photovoltaic panels generating electricity
The usage of solar towers
Using Parabolic Concentrators - This type of concentrator includes a gutter-shaped parabolic mirror that concentrates solar radiation on a pipe. A working fluid is circulating in the duct that is generally an oil that occupies the heat to provide it water to create the steam that drives the turbine of an electric generator. The concentrator requires adjusting the posture position of sunlight in the apparent daytime displacement
Using the Dish-Stirling system
Solar installations work even though the sky is dark. They are also resistant to hail (in the case of the best panels).

Solar-thermal systems are mainly made out of flat-bottomed solar collectors or vacuum tubes, specifically for smaller solar radiation in Europe. In the energy potential assessments, applications concerning water heating or enclosures/swimming pools (domestic hot water, heating, etc.) were considered.

Locations for solar-thermal applications (thermal energy).

In this case, any available space can be used if:

Allows the positioning of solar thermal collectors
Preferential orientation to the South and inclination in accordance with location latitude


This can be the case for roofs of houses/blocks, adjacent buildings (covered parking lots, etc.) or land on which solar-thermal collectors can be located (Aversa et al., 2017 a-d; 2016 a-d; Petrescu et al., 2016 a-b; Mirsayar et al, 2017; Blue Planet; World Tree, From Wikipedia; Giovanni et al., 2012).

For the solar photovoltaic potential, both photovoltaic power grid applications and autonomous (non-grid) applications for isolated consumers were considered.

Solar energy may be used very easily - with a photovoltaic system. This kind of system transforms the sunlight into electricity throughout the year, with the idea that only high-quality photovoltaic systems that produce electricity over quite a while are profitable. The machine also allows other energy sources to be in conjunction with solar energy such as for example wind energy produced by a turbine. Obviously, besides the converter, additionally it is necessary to have a battery that is strong enough to retain as much energy as possible during the night, or when the consumption amount is quite low also to release it when necessary. A system for producing, distributing and maintaining renewable energies for a residence, cottage, motel, hospital, even situated in isolated places, where the power grid will not reach, is presented in the figure 3. If the wind does not blow in a long period and the sky is not sunny, it's important with an electric generator inserted into the system.

Wind Potential

The winds are because of the fact that the Earth's equatorial regions receive more solar radiation compared to the polar regions, thus creating a large number of convection currents in the atmosphere. In accordance with meteorological assessments, about 1% of the solar input is changed into wind energy, while 1% of the daily wind energy contribution is roughly equivalent to the world's daily energy consumption. Because of this global wind resources come in large, widespread quantities. More descriptive assessments are essential to quantify resources in certain areas.

Wind energy production began very early centuries ago, with sailboats, windmills and grain mowers. It had been only at the start of this century that high-speed wind turbines were developed to create electricity. The term wind mill is trusted today for a rotating blade machine that converts the kinetic energy of the wind into useful energy. Currently you can find two categories of base wind turbines: Wind turbine WIND GENERATORS (HAWT) and Vertical WIND GENERATORS (VAWT), based on the axis orientation of the rotor.

Wind power applications involve electricity generation, with wind generators operating in parallel to network or utility systems, in remote locations, in parallel with fossil-fueled engines (hybrid systems). The gain resulting from the wind energy exploitation consists both in the low usage of fossil fuels plus the reduction of the entire costs of generating electricity. Electric utilities have the flexibleness to simply accept a contribution around 20% of wind power systems. Combined Eolian-diesel systems can provide fuel savings of over 50%.

Wind power generation is a fairly new industry (twenty years ago in Europe, wind turbines hadn't yet reached commercial maturity). In some countries, wind energy has already been competing with fossil fuel and nuclear energy, even without considering the benefits of wind energy for the surroundings.



When estimating the cost of electricity produced in conventional power plants, their influence on the surroundings (acid rain, ramifications of climate change, etc.) is usually not taken into account. Wind energy production continues to boost by reducing costs and increasing efficiency.

The expense of wind energy is between 5-8 cents per kWh and is expected to fall to 4 cents per kWh soon. Maintenance of wind energy projects is easy and inexpensive. Amounts of money paid to farmers for land renting provide additional income to rural communities. Local companies that carry out the construction of wind farms provide short-term local jobs while long-term jobs are manufactured for maintenance work. Wind energy is really a rapidly growing industry on the globe.

An indispensable requirement for using wind to create energy is a constant flow of strong wind. The maximum power Wind Turbines (WTS) are made to generate is named "rated power" and the wind speed at which nominal power is reached is "wind speed at rated power". That is chosen to suit the wind speed in the field and is normally about 1.5 times the average wind speed in the bottom. One method to classify wind speed may be the Beaufort scale that provides a description of the wind characteristics. It was originally designed for sailors and described the state of the sea, but was later modified to include wind effects in the field.

The power produced by the wind mill increases from zero, below the starting wind speed (usually around 4 m/s, but again, according to the location) to the maximum at wind speed at rated power. Above the wind speed at rated power, the wind turbine continues to produce exactly the same rated power, but at lower output until it stops, when the wind speed becomes dangerously high, ie over 25 to 30 m/s (vigorous storm). This can be a shut down speed of the wind turbine. Exact specifications for identifying the power produced by a wind mill depend on the wind speed distribution during the year in the field.

Air currents can be used to train wind generators. Modern wind turbines create a power of between 600 KW and 5 MW, probably the most used being the 1.5-3 MW output power, being more simple and constructive and more ideal for commercial use. The output power of a typical wind turbine would depend on the wind speed at the third power in order that wind speed increases, the energy generated by the turbine increases with the wind speed cube, the increase being spectacular. The world's technical prospect of wind power can provide five times more energy than it really is consumed now.

In the technique for capitalizing on renewable energy sources, the declared wind potential is 14,000 MW (installed power), that may provide an level of energy around 23,000 GWh/year. These values represent an estimate of the theoretical potential and must be reproduced in correlation with the possibilities of technical and economic exploitation. Starting from the theoretical wind potential, what interests the energy development forecasts may be the potential for practical use in wind applications, which is much smaller than the theoretical potential, according to the possibilities of land use and the conditions on the power market. That is why the economically profitable wind potential could be appreciated only in the medium term, in line with the technological and economic data known today and regarded as valid in the medium term.

Under ideal conditions, the theoretical maximum of cp is 16/27 = 0.593 (referred to as the Betz limit) or, in other words, a wind mill can theoretically extract 59.3% of the airflow energy. Under real conditions, the energy factor does not reach more than 50%, since it includes all wind turbine wind turbine losses. Generally in most of today's technical publications, the cp value covers all losses and represents the product cp * h. The energy output and the extraction potential differ with respect to the power coefficient and the turbine efficiency.

If cp reaches the theoretical maximum, the wind speed immediately behind the rotor - v2 is 1/3 of the speed in front of the rotor v1. Therefore wind generators located in a wind farm produce less energy because of the reduction in wind speed due to the wind turbines in front of them. Increasing the distance between wind turbines can reduce energy loss as wind flow will accelerate again. A correctly designed wind farm may therefore have significantly less than 10% losses because of mutual interference effects.

Average annual power will change from land to land. In high wind speeds, more energy will undoubtedly be obtained. This highlights the significance of strong winds and hence the implications of the wind climate on economic issues related to wind energy production.

Blasts are responsible for mixing air and their action can be considered similarly to molecular diffusion. As the vortex passes through the measuring point, the wind speed takes the worthiness of this whirlpool for a period of time proportional to the magnitude of the whirlpool; it is a "gust". Usually, load variation isn't significant. However, if the vortex scale is of exactly the same magnitude as the scale of an element of the turbine, then your variation in load may affect the overall component. A gust of 3 sec corresponds to a whirl of about 20 m (e.g., similar to the amount of a rotor blade), while a 15 sec burst corresponds to a 50 m swirl.

To calculate the utmost possible load for a turbine or its components over the lifetime of the turbine, the best burst value can be used for a relevant time frame. This is formulated as the maximum wind speed and gust speed over a 50-year period. Needless to say, wind speed could be exceeded during this period, the sizing reserve will allow for some overtaking. Calculation of stresses is particularly very important to flexible structures, such as for example turbines, which are more susceptible to wind-induced damage than rigid structures such as for example buildings.

A wind turbine can be placed almost any place in a sufficiently open terrain. Nevertheless, a wind farm is really a commercial project and for that reason it is necessary to try to optimize its profitability. This is important not merely for the profitability during the lifetime of the exploitation also for the mobilization of capital in the original phase of project development. For economical planning of investments in wind energy, it is necessary to know as safely as you possibly can the prevailing wind conditions in the area of interest.

Due to insufficient time and financial reasons, long-term measurement periods tend to be avoided. As an alternative, mathematical methods may be used to predict wind speeds at each location. Wind conditions and energy production caused by the calculation can serve because the basis for economic calculations. Furthermore, simulation of wind conditions may be used to correlate wind measurements at a specific location with wind conditions in neighboring locations in order to determine the wind regime for a complete area.

Since wind speed can vary significantly over short distances, for example several hundred m, wind turbine location assessment procedures generally take into account all regional parameters that are more likely to influence wind conditions.

Such parameters are:

Obstacles in the immediate vicinity
Topography of the environment in the measure region, that is seen as a vegetation, land use and buildings (description of the roughness of the soil)
Horoscopes, such as hills, may cause airflow acceleration or deceleration effects


For the calculation of the annual average power density in the field, a far more accurate estimate of the average annual wind speed is required. Then, info on the wind speed distribution over time is needed. To acquire these trusted data, data sets that cover many years are needed, but usually these data are estimated using appropriate models from shorter-date data sets. After that, it is possible to determine the potential energy stated in relation to the performance of the wind mill.

The most widespread procedure for long-term prediction of wind speed and energy efficiency in a land may be the WAsP Wind Atlas.

The model quantifies the wind potential at different heights of the rotor shaft above ground for different locations, taking into account the distribution of wind speed (with time and space) at meteorological stations (measurement points).

The reference station could be around 50 km from the site. The projected energy output because of this location could be calculated in relation to the power curve linked to the wind turbine (wind power). An integral component of the WASP model is that it uses polar coordinates for the origin of the location of interest.

The WAsP incorporates both physical atmospheric models and statistical descriptions of the wind climate.

The physical models used include:



The similarity in the surface layer - considering the logarithmic law
The Geostrophic Wind Law
Stability corrections-to allow for variation from neutral stability
Change of roughness-to allow changes in land use through the entire area
Shelter model-modeling the effect of an obstacle on wind flow
Orographic model-modeling the result of accelerating the wind speed in the field
The wind regime is described statistically by a Weibull distribution derived from the reference data. The Weibull distribution is designed to best fit the high wind speeds.

With regards to the complexity of the examined regions, different procedures are used to determine the wind conditions. As well as the WAsP model mentioned previously, there are other procedures such as for example mesoscales models.

Such measurements, usually performed over an interval of one year, could be related to neighboring areas or could be extrapolated to the height of the rotor axis of certain forms of turbines utilizing the flow simulation described above.

Evaluating wind resources at a location ideally requests data series so long as possible at the location of the turbines. Furthermore, it is useful to understand the turbulence in the field and the rotor axis for the design of wind turbines. To do this, a quick time sample and spatial distribution of measurement points is necessary. In practice, time and expenses often exclude such a thorough investigation. Imitations are given in the section on meteorology and wind structure.

Wind velocity measurements are the most significant measurements for wind resource valuation, performance determination and energy production. In economic terms, uncertainties are transformed directly into financial risk. There is absolutely no other branch where the uncertainty of the measurements is really as important as in wind energy. As a result of lack of experience, many wind speed measurements have inaccurately high uncertainties, as best practices in the anemometer selection standards, anemometer calibration, anemometer fitting and measurement field selection haven't been applied.

Investigations have shown that one anemometers are highly vunerable to vertical air flow, which, under real conditions, even come in open ground because of turbulence. In complex terrain these effects are of great importance and result in over or underestimation of real wind conditions. Just a few types of anemometers can avoid these effects.

A representative positioning of the measuring point within the wind farm shall be chosen. For large power plants in complex terrain, 2 or 3 3 representative positions should be chosen for installing the pillar. At least one of the measurements must be made at the height of the rotor shaft of the future turbine to be installed, since extrapolation from the smaller height to the height of the rotor shaft gives rise to additional uncertainties. If among the measuring posts is put close to the wind farm area, it can be used as the reference wind speed measuring pole through the boiler operation and for determining the wind energy performance by sectors.

Measurement of wind speed and direction are obviously necessary, but additionally other parameters, particularly air pressure and temperature. The equipment useful for these measurements should be robust and safe, since it will generally be left unattended for long periods of time.

Average wind speed is usually collected using cup anemometers because they are safe and cheaper. These anemometers often have better response characteristics than those used at weather observation centers. Wind direction is measured with a girue. Giruetes are often wound potentiometers. Giruge will undoubtedly be affected by the shade of the pillar and is frequently oriented so the pillar is whatsoever likely wind direction. If data about the vertical flow of air is necessary, three-dimensional data pays to. They are obtained if lesser robust propeller anemometers are employed, or sonic anemometers, which tend to be more expensive.

These anemometers indicate information regarding both speed and wind direction. The info ought to be taken at a higher frequency, possibly 20 Hz.

It is important that data transmission and storage is secure. For this function, the logger must be carefully isolated from atmospheric conditions, especially rain. Many experiments have suffered significant data loss due to various issues, including water infiltration or loss of electricity. The most promising locations for wind farms are usually in hostile environments, but a bunch of trusted data loggers can be found on the market.

It is possible to collect data remotely and download data with a telephone line. The benefit is that data could be monitored on a regular basis and any other problems that occur with the various tools could be resolved quickly. For the development of a wind energy project it is essential to carefully plan the data collection step.

Daily weather information is usually available cost-free from weather services. However, for statistical data and consultancy services fees are charged.

In South Europe, the wind regime is dominated by seasonal winds. Winter winter is linked to the northern and northest winds. These variations can be seen in station records for wind speed and temperature.

Certain studies suggest that a minimum of 8 months of data is required for the adequate estimation of wind resources. Other researchers have suggested that winter wind is the most important since it coincides with peak demand for electricity. The data may then be sorted into ranges or "boxes" for wind speed or wind direction, either all together. The quantity of measurements in each box is then counted and the sorted data is plotted as a share of the total amount of readings to point the frequency distribution.

From these data you'll be able to calculate the average wind speed and wind speed probably. You'll be able to obtain the distribution of the wind power density (proportional to the cubic wind speed). Data can also be presented as the possibility of an increased wind velocity than another given value, usually zero, u> 0. These data could be represented by two parameters from the Weibull distribution, the k and C parameters caused by the utilization of certain techniques such as the moment method, minimal squares method and many more. The two parameters of the Weibull distribution match for most wind data with acceptable accuracy.

The data collected are representative, for example, that the year is not particularly windy or calm. To be sure, data is needed for about 10 years. Obviously this is simply not practical for a location. However, you'll be able to compare the wind data from the location with those of a nearby weather station and apply a MCP-type methodology to improve the info set actually measured at a decade.

There are a variety of available MCP methods, such as:

Calculate the Weibull parameters from the location of interest and the reference location and correlate them over the measurement period and apply the correction for all of those other reference data
Calculation of the correction factor (coefficient) for the wind speed between your location of interest and the reference point, during the measurements and on each step of the wind direction
Correlate measured data with reference data by determining a continuous function between your two for all data on the measurement period and applying it for the rest of the reference data
After the wind distribution probability density is set up, the energy curve of a turbine can be correlated with wind data to look for the turbine power density density. The info can of course connect with different kinds and configurations of turbines for optimizing results.

The annual energy output of a wind turbine is the most important economic factor. renewable energy land acquisition in determining the annual speed and power curve donate to the overall uncertainty of predicted annual energy production and lead to a higher financial risk.

Annual energy production can be estimated by the next two methods:

Wind velocity histogram and power curve
Theoretical wind distribution and power curve
As well as the wind regime, there are many factors that must definitely be considered at the final choice of the optimal location for installing the wind farm. Mostly included in these are:

Access to the electricity network
Access road
Local effects on the surroundings, including landscape damage
Approaching housing
Noise effects
Interference with radio and TV signals
The locations of wind farms and the associated weather conditions have made engineers face many challenges to meet up the look requirements of the plants and installed systems. Poor access to the website may prevent large and heavy components from being delivered, the rocky terrain helps it be difficult to install along with the electrical grounding system and rain and fog can cause water infiltration in the internet connections.

The construction and operation of a wind power plant require the usage of heavy equipment for the preparation of the land, the transport of construction materials and the the different parts of the project, as well as for the lifting of turbines, electric poles and towers. Thus, there may be a potential risk that wind projects will affect rural roads designed for low traffic or light vehicles. Existing rooftops should be rebuilt or reinforced to withstand additional loads without degrading and the frequency of planned maintenance for these roads could increase.

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