Notes

High Quality Renewable Energy Land Acquisition
Management of Renewable Energies and Environmental Protection, Part I
Abstract: The purpose of this project is to present a synopsis of renewable energy sources,Guest Posting major technological developments and case studies, associated with applicable examples of the usage of sources. Renewable energy is the energy that comes from natural resources: The wind, sunlight, rain, sea waves, tides, geothermal heat, regenerated naturally, automatically. Greenhouse gas emissions pose a serious threat to climate change, with potentially disastrous effects on humanity. The application of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) as well as improved Energy Efficiency (EE) can donate to reducing energy consumption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and, as a result, preventing dangerous climate change. At the very least one-third of global energy must result from different renewable sources by 2050: The wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, biomass, etc. Oil and natural gas, classical sources of energy, have fluctuating developments on the international market. Another significant aspect is given by the increasingly limited nature of oil resources. It seems that this energy source will undoubtedly be exhausted in about 50 years from the intake of oil reserves in exploitation or prospecting. "Green" energy is at the fingertips of both economic operators and people. Actually, an economic operator may use this type of system for both own consumption and energy trading on the domestic energy market. The high cost of deploying these systems is generally depreciated in about 5-10 years, depending on the installed production capacity. The "sustainability" condition is met when projects predicated on renewable energy have a poor CO2 or at the very least neutral CO2 on the life cycle. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are one of the environmental criteria included in a sustainability analysis, but is not enough. The idea of sustainability must also use in the assessment various other aspects, such as for example environmental, cultural, health, but must integrate economic aspects. Renewable energy generation in a sustainable way is really a challenge that requires compliance with national and international regulations. Energy independence may be accomplished: - Large scale (for communities); - small-scale (for individual houses, vacation homes or cabins without electrical connection).

Keywords: Environmental Protection, Renewable Energy, Sustainable Energy, The Wind, Sunlight, Rain, Sea Waves, Tides, Geothermal Heat, Regenerated Naturally.



Introduction

The purpose of this project would be to present a synopsis of renewable energy sources, major technological developments and case studies, associated with applicable examples of the use of sources.

Renewable energy may be the energy that comes from natural resources: The wind, sunlight, rain, sea waves, tides, geothermal heat, regenerated naturally, automatically.

Greenhouse gas emissions pose a significant threat to climate change, with potentially disastrous effects on humanity. The usage of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) together with improved Energy Efficiency (EE) can donate to reducing energy consumption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and, as a consequence, preventing dangerous climate change.

At the very least one-third of global energy must result from different renewable sources by 2050: The wind, solar, geothermal, hydroelectric, tidal, wave, biomass, etc.

Oil and gas, classical sources of energy, have fluctuating developments on the international market. Another significant aspect is given by the increasingly limited nature of oil resources. renewable energy land acquisition seems that this energy source will undoubtedly be exhausted in about 50 years from the intake of oil reserves in exploitation or prospecting.

"Green" energy reaches the fingertips of both economic operators and people.

Actually, an economic operator can use such a system for both own consumption and energy trading on the domestic energy market. The high cost of deploying these systems is generally depreciated in about 5-10 years, with respect to the installed production capacity.

The "sustainability" condition is met when projects predicated on renewable energy have a poor CO2 or at the very least neutral CO2 on the life cycle.

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases (GHG) are among the environmental criteria contained in a sustainability analysis, but is not enough. The concept of sustainability must also use in the assessment many other aspects, such as for example environmental, cultural, health, but must also integrate economic aspects.

Renewable energy generation in a sustainable way is really a challenge that requires compliance with national and international regulations.

Energy independence may be accomplished:

Large scale (for communities)
Small-scale (for individual houses, vacation homes or cabins without electrical connection)
Today, the renewable energy has gained an avant-garde and a great development also thanks to governments and international organizations which have finally begun to comprehend its imperative necessity for humanity, to avoid crises and wars, to maintain today's life (we can?t go back to caves).



Materials and Methods

Solar Energy

Solar energy means the power that is directly produced by the transfer of light energy radiated by the Sun into other forms of energy. This could be used to generate electricity or even to heat the air and water. Although solar technology is renewable and an easy task to produce, the main problem is that the sun will not provide constant energy over a day, with regards to the day-night alternation, weather conditions, season.

Solar Panels generate electricity approx. 9h/day (the calculation is minimal, the winter is 9 h), feeding the consumers and charging the batteries as well.

Solar installations are of two types: Thermal and photovoltaic.

Photovoltaics produce electricity directly, thermal ones assist in saving 75% of other fuels (wood, gas) per year. A house that has both solar installations (with photovoltaic and vacuum thermal panels) can be viewed as "energy independence" (as the energy accumulated in your day is then delivered to the grid and used as needed).

The application of solar radiation for the production of electricity can be done by several methods:

The application of photovoltaic modules - by capturing the power of the photons from the sun and storing it in free electrons, thereby generating an electric current, solar photovoltaic panels generating electricity
The use of solar towers
Using Parabolic Concentrators - This type of concentrator consists of a gutter-shaped parabolic mirror that concentrates solar radiation on a pipe. A working fluid is circulating in the duct that is generally an oil that occupies the heat to give it water to produce the steam that drives the turbine of an electric generator. The concentrator requires adjusting the posture position of the sun in the apparent daytime displacement
Using the Dish-Stirling system
Solar installations work even when the sky is dark. Also, they are resistant to hail (in the case of the best panels).

Solar-thermal systems are mainly made out of flat-bottomed solar collectors or vacuum tubes, especially for smaller solar radiation in Europe. In the energy potential assessments, applications concerning water heating or enclosures/swimming pools (domestic warm water, heating, etc.) were considered.

Locations for solar-thermal applications (thermal energy).

In this instance, any available space may be used if:

Allows the positioning of solar thermal collectors
Preferential orientation to the South and inclination in accordance with location latitude


This is actually the case for roofs of houses/blocks, adjacent buildings (covered parking lots, etc.) or land on which solar-thermal collectors can be located (Aversa et al., 2017 a-d; 2016 a-d; Petrescu et al., 2016 a-b; Mirsayar et al, 2017; Blue Planet; World Tree, From Wikipedia; Giovanni et al., 2012).

For the solar photovoltaic potential, both photovoltaic power grid applications and autonomous (non-grid) applications for isolated consumers were considered.

Solar energy may be used quickly - with a photovoltaic system. This kind of system transforms the sunlight into electricity throughout the year, with the idea that only high-quality photovoltaic systems that produce electricity over a long time are profitable. The system also allows other energy sources to be coupled with solar energy such as for example wind energy produced by a turbine. Obviously, besides the converter, additionally it is essential to have a battery that is strong enough to retain just as much energy as possible at night time, or when the consumption amount is very low and to release it when necessary. Something for producing, distributing and maintaining renewable energies for a residence, cottage, motel, hospital, even situated in isolated places, where in fact the power grid will not reach, is presented in the figure 3. If the wind does not blow in an extended period and the sky isn't sunny, it's important with an electric generator inserted in to the system.

Wind Potential

The winds are due to the fact that the Earth's equatorial regions receive more solar radiation compared to the polar regions, thus creating a large number of convection currents in the atmosphere. According to meteorological assessments, about 1% of the solar input is changed into wind energy, while 1% of the daily wind energy contribution is roughly equal to the world's daily energy consumption. Because of this global wind resources are in large, widespread quantities. More detailed assessments are essential to quantify resources using areas.

Wind energy production began very early centuries ago, with sailboats, windmills and grain mowers. It was only at the start of the century that high-speed wind generators were developed to create electricity. The term wind mill is widely used today for a rotating blade machine that converts the kinetic energy of the wind into useful energy. Currently you can find two types of base wind generators: Wind turbine WIND GENERATORS (HAWT) and Vertical Wind Turbines (VAWT), with regards to the axis orientation of the rotor.

Wind power applications involve electricity generation, with wind turbines operating in parallel to network or utility systems, in remote locations, in parallel with fossil-fueled engines (hybrid systems). The gain resulting from the wind energy exploitation consists both in the reduced consumption of fossil fuels and also the reduction of the overall costs of generating electricity. Electric utilities have the flexibleness to accept a contribution around 20% of wind power systems. Combined Eolian-diesel systems can provide fuel savings of over 50%.

Wind power generation is a fairly new industry (twenty years ago in Europe, wind generators hadn't yet reached commercial maturity). In a few countries, wind energy has already been competing with fossil fuel and nuclear energy, even without taking into consideration the great things about wind energy for the environment.



When estimating the price of electricity stated in conventional power plants, their influence on the surroundings (acid rain, effects of climate change, etc.) is usually not taken into account. Wind energy production continues to improve by reducing costs and increasing efficiency.

The expense of wind energy is between 5-8 cents per kWh and is likely to fall to 4 cents per kWh soon. Maintenance of wind energy projects is simple and inexpensive. Levels of money paid to farmers for land renting provide additional income to rural communities. Local companies that perform the construction of wind farms provide short-term local jobs while long-term jobs are created for maintenance work. Wind energy is really a rapidly growing industry on the planet.

An indispensable requirement for the usage of wind to produce energy is a constant flow of strong wind. The utmost power Wind Turbines (WTS) are created to generate is called "rated power" and the wind speed at which nominal power is reached is "wind speed at rated power". That is chosen to match the wind speed in the field and is normally about 1.5 times the common wind speed in the bottom. One method to classify wind speed is the Beaufort scale that delivers a description of the wind characteristics. It was originally created for sailors and described hawaii of the ocean, but was later modified to add wind effects in the field.


The power made by the wind mill increases from zero, below the starting wind speed (usually around 4 m/s, but again, depending on location) to the utmost at wind speed at rated power. Above the wind speed at rated power, the wind turbine continues to produce exactly the same rated power, but at lower output until it stops, when the wind speed becomes dangerously high, ie over 25 to 30 m/s (vigorous storm). This is actually the shut down speed of the wind mill. Exact specifications for identifying the energy produced by a wind turbine depend on the wind speed distribution during the year in the field.

Air currents can be used to train wind turbines. Modern wind turbines produce a power of between 600 KW and 5 MW, probably the most used being the 1.5-3 MW output power, being more standard and constructive and more ideal for commercial use. The output power of the wind turbine is dependent on the wind speed at the third power so that wind speed increases, the energy generated by the turbine increases with the wind speed cube, the increase being spectacular. The world's technical potential for wind power can offer five times more energy than it is consumed now.

In the strategy for capitalizing on renewable energy sources, the declared wind potential is 14,000 MW (installed power), that may provide an level of energy around 23,000 GWh/year. These values represent an estimate of the theoretical potential and must be reproduced in correlation with the possibilities of technical and economic exploitation. Starting from the theoretical wind potential, what interests the power development forecasts may be the potential for practical used in wind applications, which is much smaller compared to the theoretical potential, with regards to the likelihood of land use and the conditions on the energy market. That is why the economically profitable wind potential could be appreciated only in the medium term, using the technological and economic data known today and regarded as valid in the medium term.

Under ideal conditions, the theoretical maximum of cp is 16/27 = 0.593 (known as the Betz limit) or, in other words, a wind mill can theoretically extract 59.3% of the airflow energy. Under real conditions, the power factor does not reach more than 50%, since it includes all wind turbine wind turbine losses. Generally in most of today's technical publications, the cp value covers all losses and represents the product cp * h. The power output and the extraction potential differ based on the power coefficient and the turbine efficiency.

If cp reaches the theoretical maximum, the wind speed immediately behind the rotor - v2 is only 1/3 of the speed while watching rotor v1. Therefore wind turbines located in a wind farm produce less energy because of the decrease in wind speed due to the wind turbines in front of them. Increasing the distance between wind turbines can reduce energy loss as wind flow will accelerate again. A correctly designed wind farm may therefore have significantly less than 10% losses due to mutual interference effects.

Average annual power will vary from land to land. In high wind speeds, more energy will undoubtedly be obtained. This highlights the significance of strong winds and hence the implications of the wind climate on economic issues related to wind energy production.

Blasts are responsible for mixing air and their action can be considered similarly to molecular diffusion. Because the vortex passes through the measuring point, the wind speed takes the worthiness of this whirlpool for a period of time proportional to the magnitude of the whirlpool; this is the "gust". Generally, load variation is not significant. However, if the vortex scale is of the same magnitude because the scale of a component of the turbine, then your variation in load may affect the overall component. A gust of 3 sec corresponds to a whirl of about 20 m (e.g., similar to the amount of a rotor blade), while a 15 sec burst corresponds to a 50 m swirl.

To calculate the maximum possible load for a turbine or its components over the lifetime of the turbine, the best burst value can be used for a relevant time frame. This is formulated because the maximum wind speed and gust speed over a 50-year period. Of course, wind speed could be exceeded during this period, the sizing reserve will allow for some overtaking. Calculation of stresses is specially very important to flexible structures, such as turbines, which tend to be more susceptible to wind-induced damage than rigid structures such as buildings.

A wind turbine can be placed almost anywhere in a sufficiently open terrain. Nevertheless, a wind farm is a commercial project and for that reason it is necessary to attempt to optimize its profitability. That is important not only for the profitability during the lifetime of the exploitation also for the mobilization of capital in the initial phase of project development. For economical planning of investments in wind energy, it's important to learn as safely as possible the prevailing wind conditions in the area of interest.

Due to lack of time and financial reasons, long-term measurement periods are often avoided. As a substitute, mathematical methods can be used to predict wind speeds at each location. Wind conditions and energy production resulting from the calculation can serve as the basis for economic calculations. Furthermore, simulation of wind conditions can be used to correlate wind measurements at a particular location with wind conditions in neighboring locations to be able to determine the wind regime for a complete area.

Since wind speed can vary significantly over short distances, for example several hundred m, wind turbine location assessment procedures generally take into account all regional parameters which are likely to influence wind conditions.

Such parameters are:

Obstacles in the immediate vicinity
Topography of the environment in the measure region, that is seen as a vegetation, land use and buildings (description of the roughness of the soil)
Horoscopes, such as hills, may cause airflow acceleration or deceleration effects


For the calculation of the annual average power density in the field, a more accurate estimate of the average annual wind speed is required. Then, info on the wind speed distribution as time passes is needed. To obtain these trusted data, data sets that cover many years are needed, but usually these data are estimated using appropriate models from shorter-date data sets. After that, you'll be able to determine the potential energy produced in regards to the performance of the wind turbine.

The most widespread process of long-term prediction of wind speed and energy efficiency in a land may be the WAsP Wind Atlas.

The model quantifies the wind potential at different heights of the rotor shaft above ground for different locations, taking into account the distribution of wind speed (with time and space) at meteorological stations (measurement points).

The reference station could be up to 50 km away from the website. The projected energy output for this location could be calculated with regards to the power curve associated with the wind mill (wind power). An integral element of the WASP model is that it uses polar coordinates for the origin of the positioning of interest.

The WAsP incorporates both physical atmospheric models and statistical descriptions of the wind climate.

The physical models used include:



The similarity in the top layer - taking into consideration the logarithmic law
The Geostrophic Wind Law
Stability corrections-to enable variation from neutral stability
Change of roughness-to allow changes in land use through the entire area
Shelter model-modeling the result of an obstacle on wind flow
Orographic model-modeling the effect of accelerating the wind speed in the field
The wind regime is described statistically by way of a Weibull distribution produced from the reference data. The Weibull distribution is made to best fit the high wind speeds.

With regards to the complexity of the examined regions, different procedures are accustomed to determine the wind conditions. In addition to the WAsP model mentioned previously, you can find other procedures such as for example mesoscales models.

Such measurements, usually performed over a period of one year, may be linked to neighboring areas or may be extrapolated to the height of the rotor axis of certain forms of turbines using the flow simulation described above.

Evaluating wind resources at a location ideally asks for data series so long as possible at the positioning of the turbines. In addition, it is beneficial to understand the turbulence in the field and the rotor axis for the look of wind turbines. To get this done, an instant time sample and spatial distribution of measurement points is required. In practice, time and expenses often exclude this type of thorough investigation. Imitations are given in the section on meteorology and wind structure.

Wind velocity measurements will be the most critical measurements for wind resource valuation, performance determination and energy production. In economic terms, uncertainties are transformed directly into financial risk. There is absolutely no other branch in which the uncertainty of the measurements is really as important as in wind energy. Due to the lack of experience, a lot of wind speed measurements have inaccurately high uncertainties, as best practices in the anemometer selection standards, anemometer calibration, anemometer fitting and measurement field selection have not been applied.

Investigations have shown that one anemometers are highly susceptible to vertical ventilation, which, under real conditions, even appear in open ground because of turbulence. In complex terrain these effects are of great importance and result in over or underestimation of real wind conditions. Just a few forms of anemometers can avoid these effects.

A representative positioning of the measuring point within the wind farm shall be chosen. For large power plants in complex terrain, 2 or 3 3 representative positions ought to be chosen for the installation of the pillar. At least one of the measurements should be made at the height of the rotor shaft into the future turbine to be installed, since extrapolation from a smaller height to the height of the rotor shaft gives rise to additional uncertainties. If one of the measuring posts is positioned close to the wind farm area, it could be used because the reference wind speed measuring pole during the boiler operation and for determining the wind energy performance by sectors.

Measurement of wind speed and direction are obviously necessary, but additionally other parameters, particularly air pressure and temperature. The equipment used for these measurements must be robust and safe, since it will generally be left unattended for extended periods of time.

Average wind speed is normally collected using cup anemometers because they're safe and cheaper. These anemometers often have better response characteristics than those used at weather observation centers. Wind direction is measured with a girue. Giruetes are often wound potentiometers. Giruge will be affected by the shade of the pillar and is often oriented so that the pillar is in the least likely wind direction. If data concerning the vertical flow of air is necessary, three-dimensional data is useful. They are obtained if lesser robust propeller anemometers are employed, or sonic anemometers, which tend to be more expensive.

These anemometers indicate information about both speed and wind direction. The info should be taken at a high frequency, possibly 20 Hz.

It is important that data transmission and storage is secure. For this purpose, the logger must be carefully isolated from atmospheric conditions, especially rain. Many experiments have suffered significant data loss due to various problems, including water infiltration or loss of electricity. The most promising locations for wind farms are usually in hostile environments, but a host of trusted data loggers are available on the market.

It is possible to collect data remotely and download data with a telephone line. The advantage is that data can be monitored regularly and any other problems that occur with the various tools can be resolved quickly. For the development of a wind energy project it is vital to carefully plan the data collection step.

Daily weather information is usually available free of charge from weather services. However, for statistical data and consultancy services fees are charged.

In South Europe, the wind regime is dominated by seasonal winds. Winter cold weather is linked to the northern and northest winds. These variations can be seen in station records for wind speed and temperature.

Certain studies suggest that at the least 8 months of data is required for the adequate estimation of wind resources. Other researchers have suggested that winter wind may be the most important since it coincides with peak demand for electricity. The data may then be sorted into ranges or "boxes" for wind speed or wind direction, either all together. The number of measurements in each box is then counted and the sorted data is plotted as a percentage of the total number of readings to point the frequency distribution.

From these data you'll be able to calculate the common wind speed and wind speed probably. You'll be able to have the distribution of the wind power density (proportional to the cubic wind speed). Data can also be presented as the probability of an increased wind velocity than another given value, usually zero, u> 0. These data can be represented by two parameters from the Weibull distribution, the k and C parameters caused by the usage of certain techniques such as the moment method, the least squares method and many others. The two parameters of the Weibull distribution match for many wind data with acceptable accuracy.

The info collected are representative, for instance, that the year isn't particularly windy or calm. To be certain, data is needed for about 10 years. Obviously this is simply not practical for a spot. However, you'll be able to compare the wind data from the positioning with those of a nearby weather station and apply a MCP-type methodology to improve the data set actually measured at 10 years.

There are a number of available MCP methods, such as:

Calculate the Weibull parameters from the positioning of interest and the reference location and correlate them on the measurement period and then apply the correction for all of those other reference data
Calculation of the correction factor (coefficient) for the wind speed between the location of interest and the reference point, through the measurements and on each step of the wind direction
Correlate measured data with reference data by determining a continuous function between the two for all data over the measurement period and putting it on for the rest of the reference data
After the wind distribution probability density is made, the power curve of a turbine could be correlated with wind data to look for the turbine power density density. The data can of course connect with different kinds and configurations of turbines for optimizing results.

The annual energy output of a wind mill is the most important economic factor. Uncertainties in determining the annual speed and power curve contribute to the entire uncertainty of predicted annual energy production and lead to a higher financial risk.

Annual energy production could be estimated by the next two methods:

Wind velocity histogram and power curve
Theoretical wind distribution and power curve
As well as the wind regime, there are several factors that must be considered at the ultimate choice of the optimal location for the installation of the wind farm. Mostly these include:

Access to the electricity network
Access road
Local effects on the environment, including landscape damage
Approaching housing
Noise effects
Interference with radio and TV signals
The locations of wind farms and the associated weather conditions have made engineers face many challenges to meet the design requirements of the plants and installed systems. Poor access to the website may prevent large and heavy components from being delivered, the rocky terrain helps it be difficult to install along with the electrical grounding system and rain and fog can lead to water infiltration in the internet connections.

The construction and operation of a wind power plant require the usage of heavy equipment for the preparation of the land, the transport of construction materials and the the different parts of the project, as well as for the lifting of turbines, electric poles and towers. Thus, there may be a potential risk that wind projects will affect rural roads created for low traffic or light vehicles. Existing rooftops ought to be rebuilt or reinforced to withstand additional loads without degrading and the frequency of planned maintenance for these roads could increase.

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