Notes

1. Short opioid analgesics and derivative of fenatyl.
2.communication with one's physician, preparation for death, and the opportunity to achieve a sense of completion, decisions about treatment preferences
3. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection
4. Ormeloxifene, birth control under the trade name Saheli, Novex and NovexDS.
Sevista, as a treatment for dysfunctional uterine bleeding, Centron.
5. Spherical
6. Antibiotics or antibacterial are a type of antimicrobial used in the treatment and prevention
of bacterial infection. They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Several antibiotics
are also effective against fungi and protozoans, and some are toxic to humans and animals,
even when given in therapeutic dosage.Those that target the bacterial cell wall (penicillin and cephalosporins) or the cell membrane
(polymyxins), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (rifamycin, lipiarmycin,
quinolones, and sulphonamides) have bactericidal activities. Those that target protein synthesis
(macrolides, lincosamides and tetracyclines) are usually bacteriostatic. The topical antibiotics are:
Erythromycin
Clindamycin
Gentamycin
Tetracycline
Meclocycline
6. An analgesic or painkiller is any member of the group of drugs used to achieve analgesia,
relief from pain. Analgesic drugs act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous
systemsMild analgesics
1. Aspirin
Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication, often used to treat
Pain,
Fever, and
Inflammation.
2. Paracetamol / acetaminophen
Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medication used to treat pain and
fever.[9] It is typically used for mild to moderate pain
Medical uses
Fever
Pain
Osteoarthritis
Low back pain
Headaches
Postoperative pain
Liver damage
Ibuprofen, from isobutylphenyl propanoic acid, is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug
(NSAID) used for treating pain, fever, and inflammation. This includes painful menstrual
periods, migraines, and rheumatoid arthritis.
7. Non steroidal contraceptives are the pills which are non hormonal( does not interfere in hormone signalling system) as a contraceptive method.Ormeloxifene (also known as centchroman) is one of the selective estrogen receptor
modulators, or SERMs, a class of medication which acts on the estrogen receptor. It is best
known as a non-hormonal, non-steroidal oral contraceptive which is taken once per week. In some parts of the body,
its action is estrogenic (e.g., bones), in other parts of the body, its action is anti-estrogenic (e.g.,
uterus, breasts.) It causes an asynchrony in the menstrual cycle between ovulation and the
development of the uterine lining
8. Laxatives (purgatives, aperients) are substances that loosen stools and increase bowel
movements. They are used to treat and prevent constipation.Laxatives may be oral or suppository
in form.
Uses
Acute and chronic constipation
Bowel preparation
Chronic immobility
Bulk-forming agents
Bulk-forming laxatives, also known as roughage, are substances, such as fibre in food and
hydrophilic agents
in over-the-counter drugs, that add bulk and water to stools so that they can pass more easily
through
the intestines (lower part of the digestive tract).
Emollient laxatives, also known as stool softeners, are anionic surfactants that enable
additional water and fats to be incorporated in the stool,
130
making it easier for them to move through the gastrointestinal tract.
Lubricant laxatives are substances that coat the stool with slippery lipids and retard colonic
absorption of water so that the stool slides through the colon more easily. Lubricant laxatives
also increase the weight of stool and decrease intestinal transit time.
Hyperosmotic laxatives are substances that cause the intestines to hold more water within and
create an osmotic effect that stimulates a bowel movement.
Saline laxatives are non-absorbable osmotic substances that attract and retain water in the
intestinal lumen, increasing intraluminal pressure that mechanically stimulates evacuation
of the bowel
Stimulant laxatives are substances that act on the intestinal mucosa or nerve plexus, altering
water and electrolyte secretion. They also stimulate peristaltic action.
10. Penicillin (PCN or pen) is a group of antibiotics which include penicillin G (intravenous use),
penicillin V (oral use), procaine penicillin, and benzathine penicillin (intramuscular use). They
are derived from Penicillium fungi. Penicillin antibiotics were among the first medications to
be effective against many bacterial infections caused by staphylococci and streptococci.
Penicillin is still widely used today, though many types of bacteria have developed resistance
following extensive use. All penicillin are β-lactam antibiotics. About 10% of people report
that they are allergic to penicillin; however, up to 90% of this group may not actually be
allergic. Serious allergies only occur in about 0.03%.
Production
Penicillin is a secondary metabolite of certain species of Penicillium and is produced when
growth of the fungus is inhibited by stress. It is not produced during active growth. Production
is also limited by feedback in the synthesis pathway of penicillin.
o α-ketoglutarate + AcCoA → homocitrate → L-α-aminoadipic acid → L-lysine + β-lactam
The by-product, L-lysine, inhibits the production of homocitrate, so the presence of exogenous
lysine should be avoided in penicillin production. The Penicillium cells are grown using a
technique called fed-batch culture, in which the cells are constantly subject to stress, which is
required for induction of penicillin production. The available carbon sources are also important:
Glucose inhibits penicillin production, whereas lactose does not. The pH and the levels of
nitrogen, lysine, phosphate, and oxygen of the batches must also be carefully controlled. The
biotechnological method of directed evolution has been applied to produce by mutation a large
number of Penicillium strains. These techniques include error-prone PCR, DNA shuffling,
ITCHY, and strand-overlap PCR. Semisynthetic penicillin is prepared starting from the
penicillin nucleus 6-APA.
9. Step 1: Discovery and Development.
Step 2: Preclinical Research.
Step 3: Clinical Research.
Step 4: FDA Drug Review.
Step 5: FDA Post-Market Drug Safety Monitoring.