Notes

Many Americans are aware of the importance of a good education. It helps people be productive citizens. It also opens the door to better jobs. In recent decades, however, legislators and citizens have raised concerns about the quality of American education. By international standards, American students score well below other students. Even higher education has come under attack. Many employers have criticized college graduates' lack of basic skills. Many believe that today's schooling does not prepare students to face the real world.




A major problem in education is its variability. Areas that have more money tend to have excellent schools with high success rates. These areas have more rigorous curriculum and plenty of resources. Meanwhile, inner city schools and rural schools lack the most basic needs. They lack books, desks, and computers. The American education system is not equal. It is structured such that wealthier students have an unfair advantage over the less-wealthy students.

Various school reform programs have been a top issue since the late 1980s. The accountability movement pushed for defined standards of learning. The movement also sought more accountability. This includes penalties for schools that do not achieve at a certain level. Other forms of schooling have come out of a frustration towards the American public school system. Charter schools, or schools for profit, are more common today than ever before. Home schooling has become more common as well. Private schools, too, are in demand.

This lesson introduces you to the big issues in education today. We will first discuss the foundations of public education in the U.S. For much of early American history, education was a privilege reserved for wealthy families. Over time, this would change. The change came as the states established public schools throughout the 19th century. The 20th century brought education to women, African-Americans, and other minorities.

The educational reform movement that began in the 1980s continues today. This lesson will discuss some of the most controversial aspects of the education reform movement. The battle over school vouchers and the school choice movement rages on today. The 2001 No Child Left Behind Act has many opponents. Educators tend to have a particularly strong opposition to this act. Some have taken to calling it "Every Child Left Behind."

Teachers' salaries is another hot issue. Each year, many teachers leave their jobs for higher-paying ones. Should the federal government provide money to increase teachers' salaries? Some taxpayers feel like the government already spends too much money on education. They also feel that putting more money towards education does not necessarily change anything. This lesson will provide you with the information to write an opinion essay on one of these hot-button issues.



The Foundations of Public Education

None of the founding fathers went to public schools. They were either taught in private schools or by private tutors. Maybe this is why they did not address public education in the United States Constitution. In fact, they did not discuss education at all. Instead, the right to create public education was left up to the states. This came from the 10th Amendment:

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.

Why Public Education?

The United States is a democracy. A well-educated society is the building block of any democracy. Citizens need to be educated. They must be aware of the political system in order to contribute responsibly to the governing process.
Public schools intend to give everyone equal access to education. Equal chances begin with education. Many presidents and civic leaders have noted that education is the great equalizer. A good education opens up a wide range of options for people.
Public schools prepare students for the job market. Public education provides children with a broad and basic education. They learn the basics in reading, writing, math, social studies, science, and the arts. Students also learn social skills. They are able to solve complex problems and learn positive behavioral skills. These skills are crucial for the "real world" of the job market.

The Structure of the Education System

As noted above, the states have assumed most of the responsibility of creating and maintaining public schools. States provide the largest source of funding for their schools. States are responsible for curricula, textbook selection, graduation requirements, and extracurricular activities. They are also in charge of teacher and administrator certification. Quality control is determined through the accreditation process. This process is done by private groups.

Local districts are single, county-wide governing bodies. They are run by elected school boards. School boards maintain the daily operation of a local district. School boards handle the maintenance of buildings. They hire employees, transport students, and operate school lunch programs. They also design learning programs, and make sure that they abide federal laws.

Most school systems get the bulk of their funding from property taxes. The rest comes from federal funding and grants. The property tax issue has been the subject of debate since the public school system began. Homeowners without children often feel that it is not their responsibility to pay for public education. People with adult children often feel that they have fulfilled their duties. Some homeowners have children in private schools. They feel like they are paying twice for one education. Each group complains that renters do not pay local property taxes. As a result, their money is not a part of school funds whether they do or do not have children in public schools.

Meanwhile, the federal government plays the role of the supervisor. It provides guidelines, direction, and funding. At times it has upheld discriminatory practices in education. At other times, it has stepped in to ensure equal access to educational opportunities for all. The section below will cover the history of the American education system.

Think About It

What are some advantages of state-run education?
What could be some advantages of a federally run system?



A Brief History of the American Education System

Colonial Times and Early America

In colonial times, a formal education was a privilege largely reserved for the elite. Settlers carried this practice with them from Europe. Over time, however, ideas about education changed. Just as voting rights slowly spread to greater parts of the population, so did the idea of education rights.

The first reference to mandated public education was in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. In 1647, the General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony stated that every town with 50 or more families would have an elementary school. Every town with 100 or more families would have a Latin school. The basic goal was to ensure that Puritan children learned to read the bible. The idea of public education was truly unique, and often tied to religion (as in the Massachusetts Bay Colony). Another example can be found in the Pennsylvania constitution, which was inspired by the Quakers, a liberal Christian group. The Pennsylvania constitution required free public education for the poor.

Massachusetts continued with its progressive education programs. In the early 1900s, Massachusetts was a fast-growing state. By 1817, residents of Boston, Massachusetts petitioned for a system of free primary schools. In 1827, Massachusetts opened public education to all citizens. In 1837, Horace Mann became the first secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education. He was a pioneer in public education. He enforced curriculum reforms and teacher-training programs. He also doubled the money spent on public education to guide and strengthen it.

By the 1850s, most of the northeastern U.S. had some form of public education written into local law and state constitutions. The South was slower in the development of public education. The small white, wealthy population had no use for public education. They also had no reason to start a public school system. The large slave and poor white share-cropping population slowed the establishment of a public education even further. Until the end of the Civil War, it was illegal to teach a slave to read. The elite viewed knowledge and literacy as threats to social control. The Quakers in Pennsylvania were among the few abolitionists who risked educating blacks.

After the Civil War, the Freedman's Bureau started to open primary schools for black children. These schools taught up to the eighth grade level. In the 1860s, North Carolina became the first southern state to have a public education system. Today, the state is still a leader in education in the South. Schools started out segregated. Segregation meant that public education was not truly democratic. In 1896, the supreme court case Plessy v. Ferguson made segregation legal. It stated that segregated schools were "separate but equal."

Women's education was also unequal at this time. Women were taught only the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic. They were not schooled beyond what they needed to know to raise a family and run a household. The first all-female school, Troy Female Seminary in New York, was opened in 1821. It offered courses like math, history, geography, languages, art, music, and literature. Mount Holyoke in Massachusetts became the first college for women in 1837. Oberlin College, still a well-reputed school today, was the first to teach male and female students together.



The Early 20th Century

The Industrial Revolution brought many changes to public education. The revolution created a need for workers. Desperate for money, poor families often sent children as young as five to work in mines and factories. More and more poor children were working at an early age and growing up illiterate. During this time the progressive movement sought to improve society. Progressives felt that the public education of children was one of their main responsibilities. They believed that an educated society made for a prosperous nation. Progressives had several goals for public education in the new century. They were to:

extend schooling to more children
increase the years of mandatory attendance
lengthen the school year (which was determined by the harvest cycle of farmers)

They achieved many of their goals. Throughout the late 19th century and early 20th century, 31 states passed education laws. The laws increased school attendance from 12 to 16 weeks for children ages eight to 14. In 1878, there were only 800 high schools. By 1900, there were 5,500.


By the 1930s, public schools had grown larger than ever. Pictured here is the second grade at the Boulder City public school.
National Archives, Arc # 293888

The Industrial Revolution changed society in other ways that would affect education. It was a time of technological advancement. The pace of the business world also quickened. As a result, more employers were searching for well-educated workers. Business owners quickly saw the need for advanced technical and managerial skills. They pushed local politicians to create high schools with expanded curricula. New courses offered science, civics, home economics, history, and literature. Vocational schools were also on the rise at this time. Vocational education offered training in drafting, carpentry, and mechanics for boys. They offered secretarial work and bookkeeping for girls.



Children at the mostly immigrant Raphael Weill public school in San Francisco recite the pledge of allegiance in 1942
National Archives, ARC # 536053

Immigration also changed the American education system. By 1910, over one million people had immigrated to the U.S. They came from eastern Europe, Asia, and Mexico. Each group brought with it its own language and culture. Leaders viewed public schools as a perfect opportunity to "Americanize" all students. Some immigrants adjusted to American culture quickly. This happened because immigrant children learned English, U.S. history, language arts, and math. They also absorbed American customs and traditions. Some groups, however, resisted these changes. Irish and Italian immigrants feared the influence of Protestant American values. Soon, they established Catholic parochial schools.

Other immigrant groups were prevented from assimilating. In San Francisco, the influx of Asian immigrants caused white citizens to panic. Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans were feared and distrusted. In 1906, the San Francisco school system put Asian immigrants into separate schools. These schools often lacked resources and teachers. Native Americans faced even more discrimination. They were not considered citizens until 1924, so public education excluded them completely.

Think About It

How does education reform fit in with the general Progressive spirit?
Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) established the "separate but equal" doctrine. Most people think of the South when they hear "separate but equal." Think of two other examples in which Plessy's standard was applied.




1950s-1990s

The public education system did not change much until the 1950s. After World War II, the middle-class grew. This increased opportunities for whites. The G.I. Bill paid for veterans' college education and helped them buy homes. Suburban school systems got their money from local property taxes. These schools thrived in the prosperous post-war America.


A sculpture depicting the "Little Rock Nine," the first students to integrate a public school in Little Rock, Arkansas in 1957.

The 1950s is reputed for being a time of peace and prosperity. In reality, it was a crucible for the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. In 1954, Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas overturned Plessy vs. Ferguson. "Separate but equal" was no longer the law. It was argued that segregation in public schools violated the equal protection clause of the 14th Amendment. The U.S. Supreme Court outlawed segregation in all public places. It unanimously agreed that segregated schools were "inherently unequal." Over the next several decades, the courts and government would have to force school systems to desegregate. Areas with all-black or all-white districts were forced to bus students to ensure integration as late as the 1970s.

In 1964, President Johnson declared a "war on poverty." He believed that education was a key to end poverty. In 1965, Congress passed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). This was the largest federal allotment for public education in history. Under this act, one billion dollars in special funding was given to systems with many low-income children. The ESEA also created several special programs.

Project Head Start provided pre-school for disadvantaged children. It aimed to equalize opportunity and readiness for first grade.
Follow-Through accompanied the Head Start program.
Bilingual education provided specialized instruction for Spanish-speaking children in English.

The ESEA also changed the atmosphere in the politics of education. The act increased the power and influence of the federal government on education. Special programs were tied to federal funds.

In 1965, Johnson also sponsored the Higher Education Act. This act provided financial assistance for post-secondary education. It guaranteed loans to all qualified students. In 1972, Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act addressed discrimination. It prohibited schools that received federal funds from discriminating on the basis of sex.

In 1979, the Office of Education was moved up to the cabinet level. It became the Department of Education. Despite increased federal participation, the Department left the education system largely decentralized. Its responsibilities primarily involved federal funding and enforcing educational laws.

The time between 1970 and 1990 was in many ways a backlash period. Citizens felt overburdened by the education system. They complained about the rising costs of education. During the 1970s, many districts voted to place a cap on property taxes. They thought it would save money for taxpayers. Instead, it drained school funding from local budgets. This reduced the quality of public education.

During this time, many felt that public education had become too accepting. In states with large immigrant populations, this belief was widespread. Some white citizens were angry that the children of illegal immigrants were allowed to attend school. They felt that because immigrant parents did not pay taxes, immigrant children were a burden for law-abiding citizens. Many of these children's language skills were very poor as well. Some white parents argued that this slowed down the learning process for their children. In 1994, California residents voted to make it illegal for children of undocumented immigrants to enroll in public schools. The law was later declared unconstitutional. Soon after, California voted to outlaw affirmative action in public education.

Think About It

On what grounds was Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) overturned?



Modern Education Reform

In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan created the National Commission on Excellence in Education. The commission was created to study the American educational system. The results were published in 1983 in a special report, A Nation at Risk. The commission observed the American public school system and found that students were:

studying the wrong subjects
not working hard enough
not learning enough
being taught under weak and uneven standards
being taught by ill-prepared teachers

A Nation at Risk captured the attention of the American public. Education became a main focus on the national agenda. This led to educational reforms.

The modern education reform movement has focused on two areas: school choice and accountability. School choice refers to the voucher system. Vouchers allow parents of children in low-performing schools to use public funds to attend private school. Voucher supporters say that it gives low-income parents some choice. It also forces problem schools to improve or risk being closed down. Critics of vouchers say that all schools should be properly funded. They also claim that vouchers drain schools of their best-performing students. Vouchers are discussed in detail below.

The accountability movement seeks to create a national standard for instruction. Many states have instituted voluntary curricula. State or federal standards serve as guidelines for what to teach, how to teach, and keeping a good teaching pace. The movement also demands accountability from students, teachers, and administrators; it uses standardized tests to determine accountability. Supporters say that standards and accountability improve the quality of education and instruction. They claim it provides much needed structure to the disorganized school system. Opponents argue that tests are "one size fits all" and inhibit real learning. The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) is a prime example of the kind of legislation that comes out of the accountability movement. NCLB is described below.

A third issue facing public education today is the lack of qualified teachers. According to some surveys, more than 29% of new teachers leave the profession after three years on the job. They often leave for jobs with better support and higher salaries. The Teacher's Union has long lobbied for the use of federal funds to increase teacher salaries. Very few non-teachers want to allocate any more money for education until they see positive results. This issue will also be discussed in detail below.



School Choice

In the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s, education reform focused on the idea of "school choice." Reformers wanted to improve the school system. They argued that school choice could be the answer to low-performing and poorly mixed schools. School choice involves giving out vouchers to parents. These vouchers would help cover the cost of their children's education in private schools. Low-income parents with children in low-performing schools support the school choice movement. Many conservatives do too.

The voucher program is not flawless. Many question its constitutionality. Vouchers use taxpayer money to send children to private (and often religious) schools. Opponents argue that this is a violation of the First Amendment. The First Amendment separates church and state. They claim that vouchers are unconstitutional because they violate the First Amendment.

In 2002, the Supreme Court came to a ruling on a school voucher program in Cleveland, Ohio. The school's program used public funds to pay for religious school tuition. The Supreme Court ruled that this did not violate the separation of church and state. Meanwhile, voters have been split on the voucher issue. Michigan and California both implemented education reform. Yet, ballot initiatives to institute voucher programs were defeated.

Supporters of voucher programs say that public schools are failing children who come from low-income neighborhoods. They argue that poor parents should have the option to choose better schools for their children. Poor parents should have the same choice as wealthy parents. They also claim that education is the best way to break the cycle of poverty. They believe that vouchers can quickly provide a child with a better education. Further, supporters argue that vouchers work well in the long run. They claim that the voucher system improves all schools by forcing problem schools to improve or risk being shut down.

Critics of the voucher system are mostly liberal. They argue that vouchers are a band-aid solution. They say that vouchers would not even be an issue if all schools were properly funded. Opponents believe that vouchers hurt public schools and rob them of their best and brightest students, leaving the neediest students in unsupported schools. Worse, vouchers often do not provide enough money to cover tuition at private schools. The system then leaves poor parents with unexpected costs. Many private schools resist the voucher program because they believe that the onslaught of voucher students will lower their test scores. Finally, opponents claim that there is no solid proof that voucher programs improve students' performance.


No Child Left Behind Act of 2001

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary School Act of 1965. The act is President George W. Bush's response to the accountability movement. His goal was to close the achievement gap in education. The achievement gap is the difference in school performance between whites, African-Americans, Asian Americans, Latino Americans and special education students. The bill sets a standard that all students should be proficient in reading and math by 2014. The law requires yearly tests to determine the progress of American students.



Provisions

Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP): Schools must raise the achievement levels of all students. Their focus should be on African-Americans, Latinos, low-income, and special education students. All students must be proficient by 2013-2014. Schools that do not make AYP for two years in a row will be placed on the "in need of improvement" list. If a school continues to miss AYP, in some cases, they may be taken over by the state until progress is met.
Highly Qualified Teachers: NCLB defines a highly qualified teacher as one with a bachelor's degree, that has passed required state testing, and is fully licensed.
Standardized Testing: Student achievement is measured by yearly testing. These tests are in reading/language arts and math in grades three through eight. Science will be included in 2007-2008.
Parental Notification: States and local districts must issue detailed report cards on the status of districts and schools.
School Choice: Schools that need improvement must allow parents the option of choosing other schools for their children.



Results

Educators and citizens are torn about No Child Left Behind. Supporters say that NCLB focuses on subgroups that have been previously ignored. They point to studies that show that inner city schools graduate students that cannot read at a third grade level. No Child Left Behind, they claim, prevents this from happening. It is able to do this because it supports and tests for early literacy. The provisions also measure student and teacher performance. The tests provide parents with concrete information on their child's progress. Supporters of NCLB also claim that it allows more flexibility in the use of federal money and it provides greatly needed resources.

Opponents say that No Child Left Behind is politically motivated. They point to the fact that it allows military recruiters the same access in secondary schools as college recruiters. They also claim that the funding promised was not delivered. They argue that standardized testing does not provide an accurate estimate of student performance and that tests merely measure how well students can take tests. They say the tests do not measure whether or not students have actually learned during the school year. Some also claim that the standardized tests are racist and favor students from the suburbs.

In addition, students must pass their tests to advance to the next grade. This can be a problem to teachers and students. It encourages teachers to teach mainly the material found on the test. This detracts from teacher's creative license and control over their lesson plans. Afterschool programs are often abandoned in favor of test-prep as well. Finally, if schools continually fail to meet NCLB standards, they can lose their funding and be shut down. The last thing we need, claim opponents, is fewer schools. To date, several states have filed lawsuits against the government. Other states have considered rejecting federal funding. All in all, NCLB is the most extensive federal legislation since 1965.

The federal government has tried to measure how NCLB has affected the achievement gap. In 2004, the National Association of Educational Progress published the following findings:

Trends in Average Reading Scale Scores by Race/Ethnicity (White-Black Gap):

At all three ages, black students' average reading scores in 2004 were higher than in 1971.

Nine-year-olds: Both white and black students scored higher in 2004 than in any previous assessment year. The white-black gap decreased between 1971 (44 points) and 2004 (26 points).
Thirteen-year-olds: The average scores of both white and black students were much higher in 2004 than in 1971. The white-black gap in 2004 (22 points) was smaller than in 1971 (39 points).
Seventeen-year-olds: Black students' average score was higher in 2004 than in 1971. At the same time, white students' scores in 1971 and 2004 were not statistically different. The gap between white and black students was smaller in 2004 (29 points) than in 1971 (53 points).

Trends in Average Reading Scale Scores by Race/Ethnicity (White-Hispanic Gap)

At all three ages, Hispanic students' average reading scale scores were higher in 2004 than in 1975.

Nine-year-olds: White and Hispanic students' average scale scores were higher in 2004 than in 1975 and 1999. The white-Hispanic reading score gap in 2004 (21 points) was much smaller than it was in 1975 (34 points).
Thirteen-year-olds: The average score of white and Hispanic students were higher in 2004 than in 1975. There was no statistically significant difference between the white-Hispanic gaps in 2004 and 1975.
Seventeen-year-olds: Hispanic students scored higher in 2004 than in 1975. At the same time, white students' average score in 2004 was not very different from that in 1975. The score gap between white and Hispanic students was smaller in 2004 (29 points) than in 1975 (41 points).

Trends in Average Reading Scale Scores by Gender

At all three ages, female students outperformed male students in reading.

Nine-year-olds: Average scores for both males and females were higher in 2004 than in 1999 and 1971. The gender gap was smaller in 2004 (5 points) than in 1971 (13 points).
Thirteen-year-olds: Average scores for males and females were higher in 2004 than in 1971, but differences between 2004 and 1999 were not statistically significant. The gender gap in 2004 was not significantly different from those in previous assessments.
Seventeen-year-olds: Average scores for males and females were not much different in 2004 from the scores in the assessments in 1999 and 1971. The gender gap in 2004 was not significantly different from the gaps in 1999 or 1971.

Trends in Average Mathematics Scale Scores by Race/Ethnicity (White-Black Gap):

At all three ages, the average mathematics scale scores for black students were higher in 2004 than in 1973.

Nine-year-olds: Average scores were higher for both white and black students in 2004 than in 1973 and 1999. The white-black gap in 2004 (23 points) was smaller than the gap in 1973 (35 points).
Thirteen-year-olds: Average scores increased in 2004 for white and black students, as compared to those in 1973 and 1999. The white-black gap decreased from 46 points in 1973 to 27 points in 2004.
Seventeen-year-olds: white and black students' average scores were higher in 2004 than in 1973. The white-black gap in 2004 (28 points) was smaller than in 1973 (40 points).

Trends in Average Mathematics Scale Scores by Race/Ethnicity (White-Hispanic Gap):

At all three ages, Hispanic students' average scale scores in mathematics were higher in 2004 than in 1973.

Nine-year-olds: white and Hispanic students' average scale scores were higher in 2004 than in any previous assessment year. The white-Hispanic score gap was much smaller in 2004 (18 points) than it was in 1999 (26 points). But, there was no big difference in the score gap between the first and most recent assessment years.
Thirteen-year-olds: Average scores for white and Hispanic students were higher in 2004 than in any previous assessment year. The white-Hispanic score gap decreased from 35 points in 1973 to 23 points in 2004.
Seventeen-year-olds. Average scores were higher in 2004 than in 1973 for white and Hispanic students. The score gap between white and Hispanic students was much smaller in 2004 (24 points) than in 1973 (33 points).

Trends in Average Mathematics Scale Scores by Gender

In 2004, male students scored higher than female students at ages 13 and 17. At age nine, the apparent difference was not statistically significant.

Nine-year-olds: Average scale scores for males and females were higher in 2004 than in any previous assessment year. The score gap between males and females shifted by 5 points between 2004 and 1973. Females outscored males by 2 points in 1973. Males outscored females by 3 points in 2004.
Thirteen-year-olds: Average scores for males and females were higher in 2004 than in any other assessment year. The score gap between males and females shifted by 5 points between 2004 and 1973. Females outscored males by 2 points in 1973. Males, however, outscored females by 3 points in 2004.
Seventeen-year-olds: Female students scored higher in 2004 than in 1973. Average scale scores for males and females between 2004 and 1999 were not much different. The score gap between males and females decreased by 5 points between 2004 and 1973.




Teachers' Salaries

Teachers are retiring or leaving the profession in high numbers. This is occurring as student enrollment increases. These events will create a demand for more than two million new teachers across the U.S. in the next ten years. NCLB requires new certification standards for teachers. Experts fear that such requirements will further increase the teacher shortage.

The high turnover rate in the teaching vocation is linked to low pay and lack of support. Some legislators say that education reforms will not work unless the federal government puts more support behind teachers. Such support would include helping states pay teachers better salaries.

Supporters of increased federal funding to raise teachers' salaries say that teaching is challenging and crucial. Teachers provide students with the knowledge they need to succeed in the world. Often, the best and the brightest teaching candidates switch to fields where they can make more money. Supporters also argue that new federal requirements for teaching licensure may be worsening the teacher shortage. They feel that the federal government should back up reforms with better salaries. They feel that this will attract and keep the best teachers.

There are many opponents to more federal spending on teacher salaries. They argue that the federal government already spends too much on education. They also say that the money seems to be spent with few results. The federal government spends billions of dollars each year. Opponents of extra spending question where the money is going. They feel that over a billion dollars should be more than enough to help states improve education. This should also be able to provide a hike in teachers' salaries. Opponents also argue that the answer is not more money. This is particularly the case when the U.S. has a war-time budget. Instead, the answer should be to improve state budgeting practices. The federal government alone cannot solve the states' financial problems. Finally, opponents claim that teachers are dissatisfied primarily because of a lack of professional support. Extra funding would be better spent on training people that want to teach but lack the necessary credentials.