Notes

structualism vs functionalism
positive vs negative skew
statistical significance p value
theory vs hypothesis
illusory correlation
confounding variable
normal curve
testing effect
SQ3R
action potential (depolarization, refractory period, excitatory vs inhibitory, threshold, all or none response)
resting potential
reuptake
acetylcholine (ACh)
dopamine (too much = schizophrenia; too little = parkinsons)
serotonin (too little = depression) --> antidepressant drugs raise serotonin
norepinephrine (helps control alterness and arousal - flight or fight)
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
glutamate
endorphins (pain control and pleasure)
agonist (mimic effects)
antagonist (blocks function)
hypothalamus (hunger, thirst, body temperature)
thyroid gland (metabolism)
adrenal glands (immune system, sexual development, stress response, fight or flight)
testis (males, testosterone)
pituitary gland (hormones, bone growth, contractions, milk production)
parathyroids (regulate level of calcium in blood, blood clotting)
pancreas (regulates level of sugar in blood)
ovary (females, estrogen, menstrual cycle)
endocrine system = slower than nervous system

Parts of the Brain:
medulla (heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, essential functions)
pons (coordinate movement)
thalamus (sensory switchboard, all except smell)
reticular formation (controls arousal, alertness)
cerebellum (learning, judge time, adapt emotions, discriminate sounds and textures, coordinate voluntary mvt)
amygdala (influence aggression and fear)
hypothalamus (maintenance of eating, drinking, body temperature, reward pathway)
hippocampus (processes new memories)
cerebrum (left and right hemispheres of brain)
cerebral cortex (ultimate control and processing center - sophisticated thinking)
frontal lobes (speaking and muscle movements; making judements and plans)
parietal lobes (sensory input for touch and body position)
somatosensory cortext (processes body touch and movement sensations)
occipital lobes (receives info from visual fields)
visual cortex
temporal lobes (receives auditory info from opposite ear)
auditory cortex
wernicke/broca is in left hemisphere

lesion (destroy brain tissue and study behavior afterwards)
EEG
CAT/CT
MRI scan (uses magnetic fields and radio waves to distinguish between different types of brain tissue)
PET scan
fMRI scan (reveals amount of blood flow in each part of the brain, indicating neural activity)

coginitive neuroscience
dual processing
heritability

Parts of Eye
lens (changes shape to help focus images on the retina, do this by accomodation)
retina (where transduction takes place, contains receptor rods and cones, begin processing of visual info)
fovea (central focal point in the retina, where cones cluster)
blind spot (point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, no receptor cells located here)
cornea (bends light to provide focus, protects the eye)
iris (controls the size of the pupil opening -> dilates/constricts in response to changing light intensity)
pupil (adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters)

transduction is the conversion of one form of energy into another

rods are located in sides of retina (black, white, and gray) (retinal receptors)
cones are located in the center of retina (color) (retinal receptors)
young-helmholtz trichromatic theory
opponent-process theory

Gestalt Principles:
figure-ground vs grouping
proximity
continuity
closure
similarity
connectedness

Parts of the Ear:
outer ear (sound waves enter, auditory canal)
middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup)
inner ear
semicircular canals
cochlea (where transduction takes place, sound waves trigger nerve impulses)
oval window (where the stirrup connects to the cochlea)
look up diagram

conduction hearing loss (damage to the mechanical system)
sensoineural hearing loss (damage to cochlea's receptor cells)
place theory (high pitches)
frequency theory (low pitches)

gate-control theory (spinal cord determines the pain that is sent to the brain)
olfactory bulb / olfactory nerve
kinesthesia (system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts)
vestibular (the sense of body positioning and movement, includes sense of balance)

bottom up processing (no prior knowledge)
top down processing (prior knowledge, information processing based on experience and expectations)
inattentional blindness
change blindness
absolute threshold (minimum stimulation need to detect a stimulus 50% of the time)
difference threshold (minimum difference between 2 stimuli required for detection 50% of the time)
weber's law
circadian rhythm

Sleep Stages:
NREM
N-REM 1 (hallucinations - false sensory experiences)
N-REM 2 (sleep spindles)
N-REM 3 (delta waves, deep sleep)
REM (vivid dreams, rapid heartbeat, irregular breathing, paralyzed body, hard to be awakened)
manifest content is the storyline of our dreams
latent content is the underlying meaning behind our dreams
insomnia (problems falling asleep or staying asleep)
narcolepsy (experience periodic, overwhelming sleepiness when awake)
sleep apnea (stop breathing during sleep and wake up long enough to resume normal breathing)
night terrors (scary dream images that can result in screaming and fear)

depressants reduce neural activity and slow down body functions
alcohol
heroin (opiates)
barbiturates (tranquilizers)
stimulants excite neural activity and speed up body functions
caffeine
nicotine
cocaine
amphetamines
methamphetamines
ecstasy
hallucinogens distort perception and evoke sensory images in the absense of sensory input
LSD
Marijuana

dissociation
suprachiasmatic nucleus

cognitive learning (acquisition of mental information by observing others, observing events, or through language)
classical conditioning (linking together two or more stimuli and anticipating events) (Pavlov's dog)
neutral stimulus
unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response
conditioned stimulus
conditioned response
acquisition
higher-order conditioning
extinction
spontaneous recovery
generalization
discrimination
Operant Conditioning
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
positive punishment
negative punishment
respondent behavior (behavior that occurs as an automatic response to the stimulus)
operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment)
latent learning (learning that occurs but it's not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it)
insight learning (sudden solution to a problem)
intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
modeling (process of observing and imitating a specific behavior, mirror neurons fire when imitating others)
prosocial behavior = positive, helpful, constructive behavior

implicit memories
explicit memories
spacing effect (massed practice vs distributed practice)
testing effect (repeating quizzing of previously learned material)
priming

proactive interference (OLD interferes with remembering new)
retroactive interference (NEW interferes with remembering old) remember "PORN"
anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories)
retrograde amnesia (inability to remember old memories)

concept = meantal grouping of similar objects (concept of what a chair is)
prototype = best example of a category (robin is a prototype for birds, but penguin is not)
convergent thinking (single best solution)
divergent thinking (mulitple possible solutions)

algorithms (step by step procedures for solving problems)
heuristics (make judgements that allow us to solve problems more efficiently)
respresentative heuristic
availability heuristic
belief perseverance (clinging onto beliefs even when they have been disproved)
framing is the way we present an issue, can influence our decisions
mental set is approaching a problem in the way that it worked before
aphasia (impairment of language due to left-hemisphere damage)

James-Lange theory (physical arousal comes BEFORE experienced emotion)
Cannon-Bard theory (physiological response AND emotion happen at the same time)
Schachter-Singer Two Factor theory (physical aroual and a cognitive label THEN sense emotion)
Yerkes-Dodson Law = moderate arousal is best
basal metabolic rate = body's resting weight of energy expenditure (how much energy the body burns when at rest)
facial feedback effect (the effect of facial expressions on how you experience emotions)
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)

schema (concept that organizes information - dogs)
assimilation (how we interpret new experiences in relation to our schemas - all four legged animals)
accomodation (adapting current understanding - all four legged animals that bark)
Piaget (So Piaget Can Fly)
Sensorimotor stage (birth-2): gain object permanence (8 months) - things still exist even when not perceived, stranger anxiety
Preoperational stage (2-6): lack conservation, egocentric (difficulty taking another's POV), theory of mind
Concrete Operational stage (6-11): children gain mental ability to think logically about concrete events
Formal Operational stage (12 and above): children gain mental ability to think logically about abstract concepts
secure attachment vs insecure attachment
basic trust = world is predictable and trustworthy
authoritarian = impose rules, expect obedience
permissive = submitting to child's desires
authoritative = demanding and responsive

social learning (we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded/punished)
Kohlberg:
pre-conventional morality (right and wrong is determined by rewards and punishments)
conventional morality (views of others matter, seeking approval)
post-conventional morality (abstract notions of justice, rights of others can override obedience to laws)

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development:
INFANCY (trust vs mistrust)
TODDLERHOOD (autonomy vs shame and doubt)
PRESCHOOL (initiative vs guilt)
ELEMENTARY SCHOOL (industry vs inferiority)
ADOLESCENCE (identity vs role confusion)
YOUNG ADULTHOOD (intimacy vs isolation)
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (generativity vs stagnation)
LATE ADULTHOOD (integrity vs despair)

cross-sectional study (compare people of different ages)
longitudinal study (same people restudied over a long period of time)
psychoanalysis attributes actions and thoughts to unconscious drives

Psychosexual stages: (Oragutans Always Play with Little Gorillas)
Oral (pleasure focused on the mouth)
Anal (pleasure focused on bowel and bladder elimination)
Phallic (pleasure focused on genitals)
Latency (dormant sexual feelings)
Genital (maturation of sexual interests)

Oedipus Complex (boy's sexual feelings towards his mother, feels jealousy/hatred for father)
Electra Complex (for girls)

Defense Mechanisms
Repression (banish anxiety arousing thoughts)
Regression (revert to a previous stage of development)
Reaction Formation (ego unconsciously makes unacceptable umpulses look like the opposite)
Projection (disguises threatening impulses by attributing them to others, a robber who thinks everyone else is a robber)
Rationalization (create self-justifying explanations to hide the real reason for our actions)
Displacement (diversion of sexual or aggresive feelings toward someone else)
Sublimation (transforming unacceptable feelings into socially valued motivations, violent woman takes boxing classes)
Denial (refusal to believe something to protect the person from real events that are painful)

trait = characteristic pattern of behavior
The Big Five Personality Factors (CANOE):
Conscientiousness
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Openness
Extraversion

Reciprocal Determinism (interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition and environment)
self-serving bias (a readiness to perceive oneself favorably)
narcissim (excessive self love)
individualism (giving priority to one self's own goals over the group goals)
collectivism (giving priority to the group's goals over one's own goals)
free association (person relaxes and says whatever comes to their mind)
empirically derived test (a test that tests a group of items and selects those that discriminate between groups)
self-esteem = feeling of self worth
self-efficacy = sense of competence and effectiveness

achievement test (test that tests what a person has learned)
aptitude test (test that predicts a person's future performance)
standardization is defining a meaningful score with comparison to a pretested group of people (ACT/SAT)
reliability = how well a test yields consistent results
validity = how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure
mainstream is to put a person with a disability into normal society
heritability is the amount of variation that we can attribute to genes
general intelligence (g)
factor analysis

down syndrome = extra copy of 21st chromosome
stereotype threat (concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype)
rumination is staying focused on a problem, overthinking about our problems and their causes
delusion (false belief)
hallucination (sensory experience without sensory stimulation)
too much dopamine causes schizophrenia
personality disorder (psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and lasting behavior patterns that impair social functioning)
antisocial personality disorder (when a person exhibits a lack of conscience for wrong doing)
aversive conditioning (associates an unwanted state with an unwanted behavior)
systematic desensitization (gradually reducing anxiety by relaxing when thinking of anxiety-proking situations)

attribution theory is explaining someone's behavior by their situation
fundamental attribution error is an person's overestimation of another's disposition and underestimating the situation
central route persuasion = focused on arguments
peripheral route persuasion = focused on incidental cues
normative social influence = influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval
informational social influence = one's willingness to accept other's opinions

social facilitation (stronger responses in the presence of others)
social loafing (tendency for people to give less effort when pooling their efforts toward a common goal)
deindividuation (loss of self-awareness and self-restraint in group situations)
group polarization is the enhancement of a group's prevailing tendencies (terrorists)
groupthink is the desire for harmony in a group overrides the appraisal of alternatives (Bay of Pigs)

other-race effect = recalling the faces of one's own race more accurately than faces of another race
social scripts (culturally modeled guide for how to act in certain situations)
mere exposure effect is repeated exposure to stimulus increases the liking of it

altruism = the unselfish regard for the well-being of others
social exchange theory
reciprocity norm (people will help those who have helped them)
social-responsibility norm (people will help those who are dependent on them)
social trap = self-interest can lead to destructive behavior
self-fulfilling prophecy is a belief that leads to its own fulfillment
mirror-image perceptions are mutual views held by conflicting people