Notes

2)state the principles of disaster mitigation?
There 'are certain principles of disaster mitigation. These include:
i) Creating awareness of risk at community level.
ii) Promoting local actions through community participation to reduce such risks.
i Incorporating mitigation measures in the national and regional development plans,
land-use planning Proposals and in project design and appraisal in hazard-prone
areas.
iv) Assisting decision makers (politicians and administrators) to understand the nature and
extent of various risks faced by communities, and assessing the economic effects of
natural disasters on agriculture, commerce and industry.
v) Demonstrating ways and means to reduce those risks within the limits of national,
regional or socio-economic conditions through proper decision making and planning.
vi) Introducing effective measures to implement disaster mitigation plans at the different
levels of government based on risk assessment and vulnerability analysis.

3)give reason why india is considered as mega biodiversity nation?
India has tremendous biodiversity, genetic as well as of species and ecosystems. It contains over 7 per cent of the world’s biodiversity on 2.5 per cent of the Earth’s surface.
As a consequence of both the diver­sity of these conditions and of the various eth­nic populations living in India, the country has become an important centre of diversity of a great many domesticated species, including vari­ous cereals, millets, legumes, vegetables, temper­ate and tropical fruits, fibre crops, medicinal and aromatic plants.

4)how can we control water pollution?
We can control water pollution in the following ways:

Administration of water contamination control ought to be in the hands of the government.

Scientific procedures have to be adopted for ecological control of catchment territories of rivers, lakes or streams.

Industries should release the used water into tanks or other water bodies only after removing the hazardous pollutants from the used water.

Forests control contamination as they act as common ventilation systems. Trees can diminish sulfur dioxide and nitric oxide pollutants and henceforth more trees are ought to be planted.

Awareness must be spread regarding the effects of water contamination utilizing the media.

Laws and practices must be set up to anticipate water contamination and these laws must be adapted occasionally based on the requirements.

Research in Health engineering must be funded and encouraged.

Sanitation system must be developed. The advantages of cleanliness should be explained to both the urban and rural areas. Proper drainage systems must be installed.

Major towns and cities have sewage treatment plants. These plants separate the undissolved particles and chemicals. Chemical treatment is additionally given to isolating undesirable dissolved chemicals. The treated water is either permitted to go into the reservoirs or declined in houses. This is a very effective way to control water pollution.

Ponds, lakes, and wells which will be used by humans meant for human use should be routinely cleaned and treated, so that it remains fit for human use. It is an essential step that should not be avoided. An arrangement of standard testing of lakes can be done periodically to guarantee the purity of the water.
Awareness must be spread regarding the effects of water contamination utilizing the media.

Laws and practices must be set up to anticipate water contamination and these laws must be adapted occasionally based on the requirements.

Research in Health engineering must be funded and encouraged.

Sanitation system must be developed. The advantages of cleanliness should be explained to both the urban and rural areas. Proper drainage systems must be installed.

Major towns and cities have sewage treatment plants. These plants separate the undissolved particles and chemicals. Chemical treatment is additionally given to isolating undesirable dissolved chemicals. The treated water is either permitted to go into the reservoirs or declined in houses. This is a very effective way to control water pollution.

Ponds, lakes, and wells which will be used by humans meant for human use should be routinely cleaned and treated, so that it remains fit for human use. It is an essential step that should not be avoided. An arrangement of standard testing of lakes can be done periodically to guarantee the purity of the water.

5)write the functions of pollution control board?
Functions of the State Pollution Control Board
According to section 17 of the Water (Prevention & Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, State Board has to perform the following functions:

**Planning Comprehensive Programs
State Pollution Control Board has to plan a comprehensive program for the prevention, control, or reduction of pollution of streams and wells in the state and secure its execution.

**Advisory functions
The State Pollution Control Board advises the state government on any matter concerning the prevention, control, or reduction of water pollution.

**Dissemination of Information
State Pollution Control Board has to collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention, control, or reduction thereof.

**Investigation and research
State Pollution Control Board is to conduct, encourage, and participate in an investigation. Also, research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.

**Organizing training program
The State Pollution Control Board has to collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged in programs related to the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and to organize mass education programs relating to that.

**Inspection of sewage and trade effluents plants
State Pollution Control Board has to inspect sewage or the trade effluents works and plants to treat sewage and trade effluents. They are also required to review plans, specifications, or other data relating to plants set up for the works for the purification, treatment of water, and the system of the disposal of sewage or trade effluents connected with the grant of any consent.

**Standards for Causing Discharge of Water
NOC Pollution Control Board has to check, modify effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents. They need to check the quality of receiving waters resulting from effluents’ discharge and to classify water of the state.

**Economic Methods of Treatment of Sewage
State Pollution Control Board has to evolve economical and reliable methods for the treatment of sewage and trade effluents, with regard to the peculiar conditions of climate, soil, and water resources in different regions.

**Methods Regarding Utilization of Sewage
State Pollution Control Board has to evolve methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture.

**Methods for Disposal of Sewage
State Pollution Control Board has to evolve efficient methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land, as are necessary on account of the predominant conditions of scant stream flows that do not provide for a major part of the year, the minimum degree of dilution.

**Standards for Treatment of Sewage
State Pollution Control Board has to lay down the standards of sewage treatment and trade effluents to be discharged into any particular stream. It takes into account the minimum fairness, weather dilution is available in that stream, and whether the tolerance limits of pollution permissible in the water of the streams after the discharge of suit effluents.

**Advisory Functions
The State Pollution Control Board must advise the state government about the location of any industry the carrying out of which is likely to pollute a stream or well. Besides the aforesaid statutory functions. Moreover, the State Board also performs functions as may be prescribed from time to time or may be entrusted to it by the Central Pollution Control Board or the State Government.

6)why do we need to conserve biodiversitiy?
**Habitat for living organisms

Biodiversity includes different plants, animals, micro-organisms, and also the ecosystem. It is a home not just for us but also for so many other living beings, and thus it has to be conserved before they get extinct. Poachers and hunters are active in the protected areas who kill animals
**Ecological Imbalances

Urbanization, Deforestation, Overpopulation are the main causes of ecological imbalance. Global Problems such as, Global Warming, acid rain Pollution (air, water, and soil), degradation of natural resources such as soil erosion, depletion of wildlife, shortage of energy, degradation of marine ecosystems, and depletion of mineral resources has resulted in biological damage which has impacted the ecological imbalance.
**Food Production
Food security depends on natural resources that form the basis of food production. Conservation of biodiversity will protect animals, plants, microbes for food production. Food production is not a one-step process. It needs a complete cycle of processes in an appropriate proportion. Our biodiversity helps to maintain that. Usage of wild species for food or unsustainable agricultural production can reduce biodiversity.
**Health and Water supply

Human health is among the most important WHO has documented that human health depends highly on the resources available in the biodiversity. A healthy and well-functioning environment is important for human beings. Around 80% of the people are still dependent on plant-based medicines.

7)write down the working procedure for electrostatic precipitator and cyclone separator for air pollution control?
**Electrostatic Precipitator Working
The electrostatic precipitator working principle is very simple. The unclean flue gas flowing through the tube is supplied by two electrodes. The shape of the two electrodes mainly depends on the type of precipitator employed like bars, plates, metal wires, etc.

One of the plates is charged by a high negative voltage, which causes particulates in the burn for getting a negative charge because they flow with this plate. The next plate carries a high positive voltage equally, due to the fact that opposed charges attract. The soot elements which are negatively charged are pulled in the direction of the positive electrode & fix to it. Irregularly these two plates should be cleaned for eliminating the collected dust.Most of the electrostatic precipitator’s works in the same method, and there are several dissimilarities as well as types that work well for different amounts of pollution, shaped particles, and smoke compositions.
**working of cyclone seperator
Cyclone separators work much like a centrifuge, but with a continuous feed of dirty air. In a cyclone separator, dirty flue gas is fed into a chamber. The inside of the chamber creates a spiral vortex, similar to a tornado. This spiral formation and the separation is shown in Figure 2. The lighter components of this gas have less inertia, so it is easier for them to be influenced by the vortex and travel up it. Contrarily, larger components of particulate matter have more inertia and are not as easily influenced by the vortex
Since these larger particles have difficulty following the high-speed spiral motion of the gas and the vortex, the particles hit the inside walls of the container and drop down into a collection hopper. These chambers are shaped like an upside-down cone to promote the collection of these particles at the bottom of the container. The cleaned flue gas escapes out the top of the chamber.

Most cyclones are built to control and remove particulate matter that is larger than 10 micrometers in diameter. However, there do exist high efficiency cyclones that are designed to be effective on particles as small as 2.5 micrometers. As well, these separators are not effective on extremely large particulate matter. For particulates around 200 micrometers in size, gravity settling chambers or momentum separators are a better option.[3]

Out of all of the particulate-control devices, cyclone separators are among the least expensive.[2] They are often used as a pre-treatment before the flue gas enters more effective pollution control devices. Therefore, cyclone separators can be seen as "rough separators" before the flue gas reaches the fine filtration stages.

8)mention the signs of global warming?
**Arctic sea ice extent is diminishing
The area covered by sea ice has been smaller every year for the past 30 years, with an average decrease of 3.2% per decade. The sea ice reaches its lowest cover in September, and then grows again during the winter. Minimum cover in September is decreasing at an even faster rate of 13.4% per decade, with September 2016 seeing cover at a record low.

Exceptionally warm winter temperatures can affect the re-growth, and October 2016 – January 2017 saw the lowest daily extent of sea ice in record, likely due to record warm temperatures in the Arctic. The Arctic Report Card released in December 2016 showed a variety of records, including temperature. The volume of sea ice is also decreasing. And the trend continues in 2017.

**Ocean heat content is increasing
The top half-mile of most major ocean waters is getting warmer. The amount of heat absorbed by the oceans has increased significantly over the past two decades. Warmer ocean water damages coral reefs, threatens marine ecosystems, and disrupts global fisheries. A change in ocean heat content can also alter patterns of ocean circulation, which can have far-reaching effects on global climate conditions, including changes to the outcome and pattern of meteorological events such as tropical storms, and also temperatures in the northern Atlantic region, which are strongly influenced by currents that may be substantially reduced with CO2 increase in the atmosphere.

**Air temperature over ocean is increasing
Just as temperatures over land are getting warmer, so are temperatures over oceans. Warmer air near the ocean surface leads to increased evaporation, and more evaporation means more water vapor in the air. The increased amount of water vapor not only contributes to extra warming, but may feed heavy precipitation events and act as fuel for potential hurricanes, if other conditions are right.

**Sea surface temperature is increasing
The surface of the ocean is getting warmer. Water temperatures measured at the surface have been higher during the past three decades than at any other time since measurements began in 1880. From 1901 through 2015, sea surface temperatures rose at an average rate of 0.13°F per decade, and they continue to rise. Warmer sea surface water can severely damage coral reefs, facilitate algal blooms, and together with warmer air temperature over the oceans, can increase the destructive potential of tropical cyclones and hurricanes.

**Global sea level is rising
Records show that the sea level has been rising steadily across the globe at a rate of 0.04 to 0.1 inches per year since 1900. The current rate according to NASA is 0.13 in/year, suggesting rise is accelerating. The main reasons for the rise are thermal expansion due to higher sea water temperatures (warmer water expands) and the added water from melting of land ice, such as glaciers.

The impacts of a higher sea level can go from permanently flooded areas (below future sea level) to an increase of seasonal and “nuisance” floods, as well as worse (higher) storm surges. Sea level rise also threatens freshwater supplies and ecosystem services such as natural water filtration, as well as human coastal infrastructure.

**Humidity is increasing (causing more warming)
Weather stations have recorded higher levels of water vapor in the air and when it is hot out, it feels even hotter. When surface temperature warms (both land and sea surface), it leads to more evaporation, and consequently an increase in atmospheric humidity. Because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, the increase in humidity causes additional warming.

**Temperature of the lower atmosphere is increasing
The atmosphere is not warming uniformly. Warming is instead concentrated in the lower layers of the atmosphere, called the troposphere (where we live, where weather occurs, and where planes fly). Rising temperatures in the troposphere evidence the human fingerprint in global warming caused through the release of emissions from burning coal, oil, and natural gas.

**Air temperature over land is increasing
Air temperature over land is increasing faster than over the oceans. The excess heat in the atmosphere has been measured by weather stations over land across the globe. The increase in air temperature is not homogeneous throughout the globe – for instance, the Arctic is seeing a faster rate of warming than other areas. The excess heat in the air can be linked to increased frequency of heat waves across the globe, wider distribution of insect pests (e.g., pine beetle in the northwest U.S.), and various health-related issues such as the spread of tropical diseases further north into the U.S.

**Snow cover is reduced, and snow is melting earlier
The area covered by snow in the Northern Hemisphere in the spring is getting smaller, not only because there is less snow in some areas and years, but also because snowpacks are melting earlier due to warmer temperatures. People all over the world rely on melting snow to replenish their water supplies, and the earlier melt (and sometimes smaller accumulation) reduces the water availability for these people, threatening their way of life. In the U.S., scientists believe that the reduced snowpack and early melting of snow in the Sierra Nevada was one of the factors behind the long, extreme drought that began affecting California in 2011.

**Glaciers are melting
Glaciers are an essential source of water for many places around the world, where people depend on glacial meltwater to replenish their aquifers. Glaciers are retreating at an astonishing pace – three times the ice volume stored in the entirety of the European Alps is lost globally every year. As glaciers melt, water supplies are at risk and there is also the potential for soil destabilization and erosion because glacial waters carve rivers through their melting path.

9)mention the steps to be taken for control of noise pollution?
Running TV and Radio at low volume
Use less Horns while driving
We should plant more trees.Trees cut sound and help in reducing Noise Pollution
We should use Loudspeakers at low volume and should not play music too loudly during parties
We should not burst crackers
We can turn off appliances which are not in use

10)write a note on effect of modern agriculture on soil?
1. It leads to soil erosion.

2. It results into increase in sedimentation towards downstream side of river.
3. Alteration in the fertility of soil.

4. Increase in deforestation for more cultivated land.

5. Leads to soil pollution.

6. It leads to desertification i.e. lands converting into deserts.
7. It results into change in the ecology of estuaries due to increase in sedimentation at the junctions of rivers.
8. Increase in water borne diseases due to contamination of surface and ground water resources.

9. Loss of natural fertility of the soil.

10. Loss of organic matter from the soil.
11. Species which are not targeted are also killed or injured.

12. After sometime the pest develop resistance against the pesticides.
13. Soil fertility is reduced.

14. On short duration exposure it causes illness and slow poisoning to human beings.

15. On long duration exposure it causes cancer, genetic defects, immunological and other chronic diseases.

11)what are the steps taken by our government for environmental protection?
The government of India has passed the wildlife protection act in 1972 to protect and conserve this biodiversity. under this act poaching and hunting are prohibited. Violation of this act is a punishable crime under law. It is not only the duty of the government to protect and preserve wildlife but all of us are responsible.
The strategy of prevention consists of raising public awareness, strict enforcement of laws, statutory assessment of environmental impact of projects and efforts to regenerate the productivity of ecosystems.


The raising of public awareness is effective in some cases in refraining people from harmful activities, once they are convinced of the dangers.

Strict laws, rigorously implemented, can prevent environmental destruction through stringent punitive measures making an undesirable action very expensive for the offender.
12)what are hotspots of biodiversity?which are the hotspots found in india ?discuss their salient features.
According to Conservation International, a region must fulfill the following two criteria to qualify as a hotspot:

The region should have at least 1500 species of vascular plants i.e., it should have a high degree of endemism.
It must contain 30% (or less) of its original habitat, i.e. it must be threatened.
Following the criteria must for an area to be declared as Biodiversity Hotspot, there are major four biodiversity hotspots in India:

The Himalayas
Indo-Burma Region
The Western Ghats
Sundaland
The Himalayas

Considered the highest in the world, the Himalayas (overall) comprises North-East India, Bhutan, Central and Eastern parts of Nepal. This region (NE Himalayas) holds a record of having 163 endangered species which includes the Wild Asian Water Buffalo, One-horned Rhino; and as many as 10,000 plant species, of which 3160 are endemic. This mountain range covers nearly 750,000 km2.

Indo – Burma Region

The Indo-Burma Region is stretched over a distance of 2,373,000 km². In the last 12 years, 6 large mammal species have been discovered in this region: the Large-antlered Muntjac, the Annamite Muntjac, the Grey-shanked Douc, the Annamite Striped Rabbit, the Leaf Deer, and the Saola.

This hotspot is also known for the endemic freshwater turtle species, most of which are threatened with extinction, due to over-harvesting and extensive habitat loss. There are also 1,300 different bird species, including the threatened White-eared Night-heron, the Grey-crowned Crocias, and the Orange-necked Partridge.

The Western Ghats

The Western Ghats are present along the western edge of peninsular India and covers most of the deciduous forests and rain forests. As per UNESCO, it is home to at least 325 globally threatened flora, fauna, bird, amphibian, reptile and fish species. Originally, the vegetation in this region was spread over 190,000 km2 but has been now reduced to 43,000 km2. The region is also known for the globally threatened flora and fauna represented by 229 plant species, 31 mammal species, 15 bird species, 43 amphibian species, 5 reptile species and 1 fish species. UNESCO mentions that “Of the total 325 globally threatened species in the Western Ghats, 129 are classified as Vulnerable, 145 as Endangered and 51 as Critically Endangered.”

Knowing in detail about the Western Ghats will be helpful for the aspirants for the Geography preparation.

Sundaland

The Sundaland hotspot lies in South-East Asia and covers Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia. In the year 2013, the Sundaland was declared as a World Biosphere Reserve by the United Nations. This region is famous for its rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem. Sundaland is one of the biologically richest hotspots in the world which comprises 25,000 species of vascular plants, of which 15,000 are found only in this region.