Notes

THE CIVILIZATION OF GREECE


Scholars differ as to the origin of the Greeks. About 4000 B.C., a dark-skinned race settled on the peninsula that was afterward called Greece, and later, on the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. Some say these settlers came from Anatolia; others say they came from the Black Sea area. Some of these ancient nomads settled on the large islands of Crete not far from the southern tip of the peninsula. This group developed one of the first great civilizations.

Here is your goal for this lesson:

Describe geographical features, history, and culture of ancient Greece

VOCABULARY
complexity Made up of a number of parts.
corbel A bracket of stone, wood, or other material on the side of a wall. It helps to support a projecting ledge above.
fortification A wall or fort built to make a place strong. Something such as a wall used against an attack.
frieze A decorated band around a room.
labyrinth A maze; a number of connecting passages so arranged that it is hard to find one's way from point to point.
nomad A member of a tribe that moves from place to place to have food or pasture for its cattle; a wanderer.
pumice A light, spongy stone thrown up from volcanoes.
saffron An orange-yellow coloring matter obtained from a kind of flower, the crocus.
Vocab Arcade


GEOGRAPHY
Greece is made up of the southern or lower part of the Balkan peninsula, which is in the northeastern part of the Mediterranean Sea, and of numerous islands off the coast. Greece is bounded on the east by the Aegean Sea, and on the west by the Ionian Sea. On the north are other Balkan countries. Greece has many fine harbors and much natural beauty. However, the mountain ranges and the deep valleys cut Greece into isolated sections. Generally, the soil is stony and dry, although there are some valleys that have rich, red earth. Usually, little rain falls except along the eastern border.




BEGINNINGS

Crete. Not until 1870 did the world unearth the remains of the great civilization of the Cretans. Like the Fertile Crescent, Crete had rich soil, a perfect climate, and plenty of water. With less time spent battling for a living, the Cretans began to make difficult and complicated objects. They cut down their large trees and built ships to sail the blue Mediterranean. From the wild crocus flowers that covered their island with a golden mantle, the Cretans collected the saffron used in yellow dye, food, and medicine. With products to trade, the Cretans visited other lands. From the Egyptians, they secured rich fabrics and jewels. From the Anatolian Hittites, they learned how to use iron. From the wealthy Lydians, they learned to coin money. From Phoenicia, the Cretans secured the alphabet that we use tod

As the Cretans developed a government, they chose a king for a seven-year period. The king was known as Minos, and the people were called Minoans. The capital of Crete was Knossos. In the last century, when the king's palace was unearthed, its complexity amazed the archaeologists.

Great friezes decorated the walls. The symbol of the double-ax was used in painting and in sculpture and is thought to have represented the authority of the king.

The throne was only a seat with a high back, and the nobles had only benches to sit on. However, the benches were covered with red and white plaster. Also, archaeologists were surprised to discover that the Minoans had plumbing for running water and bathtubs. On the walls were painted fish, dolphins, and seaweed. The queen had her own private staircase so that she could go upstairs without bothering the men. Several rooms in the palace held large storage jars that were six feet tall. Wheat, oil, dye, and other necessities were kept in them.

An unusual part of the Minoan palace at Knossos was an underground series of rooms called a labyrinth. Visitors were lost in the labyrinth unless they dropped a string behind them for a guide. In this place, a monster called Minotaur was said to live. The Minotaur was half bull and half man. Each year seven youths and seven maidens were sacrificed to Minotaur. Many scholars believe monuments and sacrifices to a bull were made because the Cretans thought the sound of an earthquake was an angry bull. By sacrificing the young people, the Cretans thought they could satisfy the angry bull and avoid destruction.

The Cretans also worshipped the Great Mother Cybele, or Snake Goddess. Often, her image was carved in statues with much gold decoration and with snakes coiled around the arms. Snakes were thought to be household protectors; thus, each home had a special room for snakes. Sometimes a little table with grooves was placed in a convenient place so the creatures could sip their milk from a center cup.

The Cretans also built wide paved roads on which chariots could be driven. Inns with footbaths were built near the roads to give relief to weary travelers.

The Cretans loved games, food, athletics, music, and beautiful dress. They expressed regard for mankind in delicate and lovely art. The Cretans were the first to build stone theaters where large audiences were entertained by processions and musical programs. Women in Crete had many more rights than women had in most early civilizations. Girls even assisted bullfighters. In bullfighting, the Minoans demonstrated good sportsmanship; for the bull was not killed. The male fighter had to grab the horns of the lunging bull, throw himself on the back of the animal, and then land on the ground. A girl helped the bullfighter keep his balance.

The women wore full skirts with very tiny waists, beautiful hairdos, and jewelry. The men wore belts around their small waists. They shaved with stones, rubbed their teeth with pumice stone, and had their body hair singed by a barber.

For food, the Minoans ate fish, birds, and beef. They had barley cooked in various ways and enjoyed cheese, nuts, and honey. They drank goats' milk believing that only uncivilized people drank cows' milk. Although Minoans ate with their fingers, they had the food cut into bite-size pieces before it was served.

The Cretans were at peace. They had no fortifications. Perhaps when the nearby Greeks came to trade or visit, they envied the Cretans' way of life and thought how easy the conquest of this paradise would be. The conquest of Crete by the Mycenaeans is exactly what happened about 1450 B.C., after Knossos had been shaken by an earthquake. From then on the Mycenaeans from Greece controlled this great civilization of the Cretans.


Mycenae. The Mycenaeans of Greece were a vigorous and bright people who absorbed good taste from other lands. By 1400 B.C., they were known for their art, literature, and philosophy. Their chief city, Mycenae, was just north of what later became Corinth. The palace of their king was a busy and noisy place. Beautiful objects, inlaid with ivory, glass, or gold, were treasured by the Greeks because of the time and effort required to make them.

In 1300 B.C. the king built a wall 23 feet wide and 60 feet high. The stone blocks used were enormous. A corbel arch, in which each stone projected beyond the one below, was used. A triangle was also used for support. The Lion Gate, the main gate on the wall and an example of a corbel arch, is admired to this day.

The common people went inside the palace walls in times of danger, but at other times lived in their own houses. Their homes were shaped like deep rectangles with flat roofs and front porches.

People worked at various occupations. They were cooks, doctors, carpenters, tailors, woodcutters, and manufacturers of textiles. The Mycenaeans grew many agricultural products and kept domestic animals such as oxen, sheep, pigs, and goats. They also built good roads and bridges

For their worship of gods, these people built shrines. Zeus was thought to be the father of all the gods and to live, with the other gods, on Mt. Olympus. The Greeks thanked Zeus for all things-rain, sunshine, food, and victories in war. They also honored Apollo, the sun god; Poseidon, the sea god; Artemis, the moon goddess; and many others. There was even an altar labeled "To an Unknown God," which moved Paul to preach the truths of Christ to the Greeks. Many laughed at Paul, but a few believed.

In the thirteenth century many pirates came in from the sea to attack cities and rob them. Mycenae was destroyed by the Dorians, who came from Asia Minor. For safety, many Greeks fled to Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor. Because they believed they were heroes, the Greeks remained strong and later returned to their homeland to rebuild it.
GREECE: CITY-STATES


The mountains and deeply indented coast of ancient Greece separated the individual communities. The communities developed into city-states in the Grecian peninsula because of the topography of the land. A city-state, called a polis, was a typical Greek settlement, with a fortified city at the center of a territory. The city-state would also include other surrounding villages. For example, the polis of Attica was made up of Athens and its surrounding area, and the Acropolis was its fortress. Four chief city-states were Argos, Thebes, Sparta, and Athens.

Here are your goals for this lesson:

Explain the concept of Greek city-states
Describe the history and culture of Sparta and Athens

VOCABULARY
dictatorship Rule of a person with absolute authority.
helot A member of the class of captive slaves or serfs of ancient Sparta.
hoplite A heavily armed Greek foot soldier who fought in close formation with others.
Perioeci Class of persons in ancient Sparta who had no political rights, but were free and protected by law.
polis A city-state of ancient Greece.
topography Surface features of a place or region.
trance A condition somewhat like sleep.
Vocab Arcade


CITY-STATES: CHARACTERISTICS
Different city-states developed their own separate cultures, each one becoming stronger in certain areas than in others. These developments soon spread across the Greek world. Corinth and later Argos became great centers of literature. Sparta was especially strong politically. Greek philosophy began in the city-states of Asia Minor, especially in Miletus. Each of these strengths soon spread across Greece. The city-state culture became, in many ways, a national culture because of the dynamic interactions between the city states.

People remained loyal to their city-states and not to a nation. In many ways, the Greeks did not become a strong, united nation. On the other hand, some elements did unify the city-states. All Greeks had a belief in many gods, they had a common language, and they had the same literature. Another uniting feature developed in 776 B.C. when the first Olympic ® Games were held in the valley of Olympia in the city-state of Ellis. At first only foot races took place; then many other sports were added, including chariot racing. The games were named for the home of their gods, Mt. Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. During the games every four years, all politics, national desires, and unpleasantness were set aside. Athletes were noted for their beautiful bodies. Winners were crowned with a ring of leaves, and often sculptors made marble statues of them.

Before the Olympic ® Games, elections, battles, or other important events, the Greeks traveled the steep and difficult roads to Delphi to consult Apollo. There a priest sprinkled water on a goat. If the goat moved, the action meant Apollo was ready to speak. A priestess ate certain leaves and drank "holy water" before going into a trance. The people thought Apollo spoke through the priestess. Priests interpreted her frenzied speech as advice or predictions for those who had come to consult.
Sparta was a military state. The term Spartan indicates one who lives a simple life or one who endured much without tears or evidence of suffering.

A boy in Sparta was taken from his mother at the age of seven and trained to endure discomfort. His head was bare, his feet were bare, and he bathed in a cold river. At night he slept on the ground. He was beaten for the smallest neglect of duties. He learned to be entirely obedient to the state and to forget his own desires. At 20 he went to live in the army housing and let his hair grow long. At 30 he could marry. Until he was 60 years old, he lived as a servant of the army. To win in wartime was a man's chief ambition, for a Spartan belonged to the State from birth.

Spartan government recognized three classes of people. The Spartiates ruled. The Perioeci, often those who had been allies, could trade or manufacture. In the lowest class were the helots (serfs or slaves), who were despised by all. Captives were always made helots. To control the slaves, harsh discipline was needed.

Sparta had two kings to act as checks against each other. The government also had a Council, 30 nobles who had reached 60 years of age, and a General Assembly of citizens. The real governing body was the Ephorate, a board of five men who were elected annually and who held power over trials, property, education, and even the kings. Only a small group of the Spartans had the true rights of citizens. These Spartans were the males who had good incomes and were enrolled in the army.

Scholars often compare the ancient Spartan government with that of Nazi Germany before World War II. By her enslavement of many, Sparta herself was coarsened. The unrest within Sparta was difficult to control. Those who opposed the military life were punished because individual ideas had no place in Spartan society. Neither did Spartans welcome outsiders for they wanted no changes, no new ideas, and no resistance to their way of life.

One of the unforgettable events in the history of Sparta, which occurred about 1250 B.C., was the Greek attack on the city of Troy in Asia Minor. After 10 years of fighting, the Spartan leader Agamemnon withdrew, leaving a large wooden horse for a gift. At first the Trojans were afraid to take the horse inside their gates. However, their curiosity overcame their fear and they rolled the horse into the city.



After dark, the Greek soldiers who were hidden inside the horse crept out and opened the gates of Troy. The Greeks attacked and burned the city. Today people still say, "Beware the Greeks bearing gifts."

CITY-STATES: ATHENS
Perhaps because she had escaped destruction at the hands of barbarians, Athens became the most highly civilized country of her time.

From 900 B.C. until 600 B.C., kings and nobles ruled Athens. Nobles grabbed much land, since farmers with unpaid debts could have their land taken from them. Tradespeople had little reason to work hard, and slaves had no rights.

However, when Solon became ruler in 594 B.C., he made many reforms with the help of the Council. He established a supreme court. He canceled farmers' debts and put a limit on the amount of land that could be owned by nobles. A system of coins was begun in order to help the merchants. Those who would not work were punished. All free men could be citizens, although the lower class could not vote.

Shortly after the reforms of Solon, the Age of Tyrants began. The many powers, which had been given to leaders in wartime, were turned over to one man, called a tyrant. This form of government is called a dictatorship. When Cleisthenes, a noble, came to power, he ended the dictatorship and gave full rights to all free men. Cleisthenes was called the father of Athenian democracy. Ten committees were given the right to declare war, collect money and check the accounts of those in power. By secret vote the people could shut off from society anyone who neglected his duty or seemed to be taking too much power. In this way a direct democracy was begun.

In 477 B.C. Athens formed the Delian League to unite the city-states for protection. The league's money was kept in the temple of Apollo. However, differences of opinion soon developed. The other states said that Athens was becoming a tyrant. No one was powerful enough to change the system; thus, Athens ruled. Under the rule of Pericles, Athens reached the height of her power. This period ( 461- 431 B.C.) was called the Golden Age of Greece.

During the Golden Age, the Board of Generals came to resemble the present British cabinet. Office holders were paid in order to keep down corruption. The poor could take part in government, and a court system with juries of common citizens was begun.

The Greeks believed in enjoying life, but they lacked many modern items that we call necessities. They had no newspapers, coffee, tea, bedsprings, sugar, or water drains. They ate simply, usually barley cakes, onions, fish, and fruit. For clothes the men wore short tunics, aprons, and sandals for work. Loose robes were worn for extra warmth. A woman wore a chiton, which was a long, loose garment with shoulder fastenings. The loose garment was made to blouse by a rope worn around the waist. Sandals were made by placing the foot on a piece of skin while the shoemaker formed a covering for the foot.

Children liked to have pet rabbits and play ball games. They also raced their little chariots, pulled by dogs, for fun. They enjoyed making objects from available scraps. The children were taught by slaves. They learned poetry, music, and dancing. Physical exercise was a large part of the life of young people.

At 18 a young man began 2 years of military training. After that he could participate in the men's classes in the gymnasium where javelin and discus throwing was done. For protection in wrestling, he tied leather strips around his wrists. He also cut his hair. At the gymnasium, teachers from many lands instructed the young men.

The Greek hoplites fought so closely together that their shields overlapped. Their ranks were 5 to 16 or more deep. Their spears were very long.

GREECE: WARS


The history of Greece records many wars, some of no great consequence, some very serious. The war with the Persians began with Athens standing alone and winning. The Persians returned, but Sparta joined Athens to defeat the Persians again. Nevertheless, Sparta and Athens finally found themselves at war with each other.

Here is your goal for this lesson:

Describe Grecian involvement in the Persian War and the Peloponnesian War

VOCABULARY
trireme A Greek ship with three rows of oars, one above another, on each side.


PERSIAN WAR
When Xerxes (zurk'sees) of Persia fought in Asia Minor, Athens helped the people of Asia Minor. Eventually, the Persians attacked the Greeks.

In 490 B.C., a famous battle took place. On the plain of Marathon, a large number of Persians with bows and arrows fought the Greeks. Although greatly outnumbered, the Greeks won because they had spears and swords made of metal.

However, Themistocles, a great statesman of Athens, warned the Athenians that, because the Persians would return, they should enlarge their navy. The people obeyed. Sparta, too, offered her aid if she could supervise the fleet. The Persians arrived with great numbers and attacked the Greeks on both land and sea. To win, the Greeks had to plan very carefully. Leonidas, the Spartan leader with 1,400 men, was to keep possession of the pass at Thermopylae through which 30,000 Persians would pass. For three days the Greeks held, until a Greek traitor revealed a secret path to the Persians. Leonidas and his brave men fought to the death. Although the Spartans delayed the Persians, they all died, and the Persians won. The memory of Leonidas and his brave men is forever enshrined in Grecian history.

Although the city of Athens was burned before the Persians left, most of the inhabitants had fled to the neighboring island for safety. Themistocles ordered the Greeks to prepare for another attack. This time he advised them to leave their fleet in the Bay of Salamis. In 480 B.C., when the Persians arrived, they were confused by a space so small that they could not maneuver in it. This time a few hundred Greek ships destroyed an enormous fleet. Xerxes withdrew his men.

The next year, another battle took place, which 32,000 Greek hoplites and 50,000 other troops won. The Persians never invaded Greece again.


PELOPONNESIAN WAR
Although Sparta and Athens helped each other in times of invasions, they were very different culturally. Athens was democratic and advanced, but Sparta was backward and ruled by the upper class. Finally, from 431 to 404 B.C., these two city-states engaged in a great conflict, called the Peloponnesian War, after the name of the lower part of the peninsula. Sparta gained support from other states. Athens gathered her people inside the city walls. A terrible plague swept over the Athenians, killing one out of three persons, including the great Pericles.

Athens had been proud of her navy of 150 triremes, but all were taken by Spartans who had been trained since childhood to win at any cost. When the Spartans shut off all shipment of food, the starvation of the Athenians followed. In 404 B.C., Athens surrendered to Sparta.

For 30 years Sparta ruled, but many disliked her government, which was headed by just a few. Thebes, another city-state, joined with Athens to crush Sparta. For nine years Thebes was the ruling state.

However, Greece was so weakened by internal wars that Philip of Macedon began to move into Greek territory. Although Demosthenes, a great public speaker of Greece, warned the Assembly of the coming danger, the Athenians were not concerned. At Chaeronea, Philip of Macedon won control of Greece.

When Philip died, his son, Alexander the Great, although only 20 years old, set out to conquer the world. He won Asia Minor, Persia, Egypt, and part of India, but died at the age of 33 of a fever in Babylon. He thought he had conquered the known world.

The highest ranking generals then divided the empire into four parts.

GREECE: CONTRIBUTIONS


The Greek civilization had much to contribute in the ways of culture, science, philosophy, and architecture. In this lesson, you will learn about the many contributions from Greece.

Here is your goal for this lesson:

Describe Grecian contributions to philosophy, architecture, science, and government

VOCABULARY
philosopher Person who studies truth and principles of knowledge.
philosophy The study of truth and principles underlying all real knowledge.
Vocab Arcade


European and New World civilizations have adopted some of the best ideas from the Grecian civilization. Philosophy, literature, art, architecture, medicine, science, and government owe something to Greece. Much of our information concerning these subjects in ancient Greece comes from Herodotus. He is known as the father of history.

Philosophy. One great philosopher, who lived from 469 to 399 B.C., was Socrates, the son of a stonemason. Socrates was not interested in his father's trade. He enjoyed mathematics, history, and debate (how to win an argument). He also listened to the Sophists, who taught the meaning of dreams, but unlike the Sophists, Socrates relied on reason to examine his world. When he became an adult, Socrates became a teacher.

Although Socrates remained poor, he enjoyed teaching and taught in a new way. He asked questions or argued with his students. In time, the Athenians were unhappy about Socrates, who seemed to make fun of old ways and ideas. Socrates was brought to trial when he was 70 years of age. He did not ask for mercy, and when asked which penalty he wanted, he chose death. Some of his friends made his escape possible, but he refused because he said he always had obeyed the laws of Athens, and he would do so until his death. When his cup of hemlock poison was brought to him, he drank it calmly and lay down to die.

Socrates himself never wrote a book. However, much of the teaching of Socrates was reported by one of his pupils, Plato, in the books he wrote. Plato believed an ideal city should not have more than 10,000 people so that democracy could be assured. He believed reason should prevail and that the spiritual was more important than the physical. Above all, he wanted harmony and efficiency.

Aristotle, who studied under Plato, became the tutor of Alexander the Great. Later Aristotle started his own school, which was called the "Lyceum." He was a scientist who thought both form and matter were important and that the universe was governed by purpose. Aristotle believed the Golden Mean, a balance between too much and too little, was the rule that would lead to happiness. He also said that man, by nature, was a political animal and that the middle class should control politics.

Much of Western philosophy is based on the Grecian belief in equality and on the Socratic method of questioning all ideas. This great development of knowledge was part of the preparation of the world for the coming of Christ.

Architecture. The great architecture of the Greeks has not been surpassed in modern times. The Parthenon, designed by the architects Ictinus and Callicrates, was built between 448- 437 B.C. under the supervision of Phidias, a great sculptor. It still stands in Athens, a classic example of Grecian models. The Greeks introduced to the world three kinds of columns. All three kinds of columns have been used in the construction of important structures from that time until the present.

Science. During the Hellenistic Age of Greece ( 323- 303 B.C.), Alexandria, in Egypt, which was under Grecian control, became the leading city. It had a library of 500,000 books and the first institution founded for scientific learning. Euclid wrote his book on geometry during the Hellenistic Age. Eratosthenes wrote the geography in which he used lines of latitude and longitude. Archimedes invented a complicated system of levers and pulleys, which permitted a king to launch a ship by the turn of a crank. In fact, one might call this an age of inventions.

Medical doctors still take the Hippocratic oath that they will practice honestly, and they use many of the same kinds of instruments as Hippocrates and other Greek doctors did. Modern doctors do not blame the gods for diseases; they look for scientific evidence. Euclid's geometry is the basis for modern geometry. Pythagoras wrote such advanced theories in mathematics that modern man used them in the study of space. The Greeks knew of the daily rotation of earth and the revolution about the sun. They computed the diameter of the earth to near exactness.

Government. One of the greatest contributions of the Greeks was the introduction of democratic methods in government. In addition, the love of a decent life, which is one of the most cherished ideals of Americans, and the right of the accused to a jury trial, which is one of America's most precious rights, originally came from Greece.

The Greek language, too, is considered to be the best ever devised for expressing thought. Those who wrote the New Testament used the Greek language to great advantage. Because so much of the world had been under the influence of the Greeks, a common language was spoken in all those areas. The New Testament, then, was available to the world in a language that could express God's truths in a clear manner.

After coming to its peak during the Hellenistic Age, the greatness of Greece began to decline with a trend toward "the rule of the few" and an increased interest in worldly goods. Cities developed slums, and the people showed little spiritual growth. In her declining state and with the tentacles of Rome reaching out to grasp her, Greece lost her position of greatness in the Mediterranean World. About 146 B.C., she became part of the Roman Empire.