Notes

Chapter 1:
What is chemistry?
What are the kinds of chemistry? P.11
What is matter?
What are the differences between and amongst a hypothesis and theory?
Give 3 rules that need to be followed in a chemistry lab.
What does restoring works of art have to do with chemistry?
Chapter 2:
SI units; metric system: base units; SI prefixes
Derived units: liter, L and density: D
Scientific notation: for very large and very small numbers
Dimensional analysis:
Accurate: close to the true or accepted value; precise: measurements that are very close to one another, when repeated
Rounding: after all math operations are performed, determine significant figures and then round up if last significant figure is 5 or more and remain the same if 4 or less
Graphs: line, bar, pie; interpreting graphs: axes labeled and read legends
What does ingesting poisons accidentally have to do with chemistry?
Chapter 3:
States of matter: solid, liquid, gas/vapor (also, called phases and phase change from solid to liquid to gas, etc.)
Physical properties of matter: color; melting point, boiling point; density;
Physical change: phase change, mixtures (solutions): separating mixtures by: filtration, distillation, crystallization, chromatography
Chemical properties of matter:
Chemical change: color change, gas formation, precipitate formation
Elements and compounds
Know what physical properties are and what chemical properties are and how they are different (rusting, exploding, burning, decomposing, oxidizing)
Know the properties of solids, liquids, gases. Be able to explain those properties AND tell how they differ from one state of matter to another.
Know how matter is related to taking up space and having mass
Know the words associated with phase change and going from which state of matter to which other state of matter:
Melting/freezing; boiling/condensing; sublimating
Law of the Conservation of Mass (as it relates to chemical reactions)
Mass (of the reactants) = Mass (of the products
Mass is not created (or added to) or destroyed (taken away) in a chemical reaction; it is just rearranged; it is conserved.
See examples in textbook and workbook.
Know the difference between and a pure substance and a mixture
Know the difference between a homogenous and a heterogenous mixture
Know the methods of separating various mixtures; know the names and processes of these methods: filtration, distillation, chromatography, crystallization, sublimation, evaporation; screening
Know what elements and compounds are
Know the definition of element; know that elements have one or two letter symbols
Know that the elements are arranged in a periodic table
Know the definition of compound; know that compounds can be broken into their smaller, elemental parts
Know what the Law of Definite Proportions says in words; know how to use the percent by mass formula for finding the percentage by mass of elements in a compound (see text and workbook for examples)
Know what the Law of Multiple Proportions says in words
Chapter 4:
History of the atom and atomic theory
Who are John Dalton and Democritus and Aristotle?
Defining an atom: nucleus of proton and neutron; electrons
Models of atoms
Isotopes and mass number
Atomic mass units
Radiation: alpha, beta, gamma
What does solving a crime have to do with chemistry?
Chapter 5:
Electromagnetic spectrum of light
Quantum theory of light
Photons
Quanta
Waves
Atomic emission spectra as element identifier (fingerprint of element)
Bohr’s model of the atom
Heisenberg uncertainty
Schrodinger wave equation
Electron orbitals of atoms
Shapes of orbitals
Energy levels and sub-orbitals
Electron configuration and valence electrons and how that relates to groups of elements and periods of elements
What do lasers (and what they are made of) have to do with chemistry?
Know what an element symbol is
jjj. Know which number is the atomic number and that that number is the number of protons in the nucleus AND that it is the number of electrons in an uncharged (neutral) atom
kkk. Know which number is the mass number in an element symbol box
lll. Know how the energy level (quantum number, period number) is designated in longhand electron configuration (the large font numbers)
Know that the 7 energy levels (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) are the numbers of the periods (horizontal rows of periodic table)
nnn. Know the 4 suborbital letters (s,p,d,f) and where their blocks are located in the periodic table
ooo. Know that the superscript number above the suborbital letter is the number of electrons in that suborbital
ppp. Know that the groups of elements are numbered 1-18 and that the general rule is that the number (or the number minus 10) is the number of valence electrons for elements in that group
qqq. Know how to write the longhand electron configuration correctly using the Aufbau chart and scale
rrr. Know how to write the shorthand (noble gas) electron configuration using the Aufbau chart and the periodic table
sss. Know how to find the number of valence electrons for Groups 1,2, 13, 14, 15,16,17,18 using the electron configuration and/or the periodic table
ttt. Know how to write the electron dot notation for any of the groups of elements in #11 above
uuu. Know why we talk about the behavior of light (all electromagnetic waves) is terms of both photon (particle behavior) and quantum (wave behavior) and why understanding this is important when discussing the behavior of electrons
( high energy, very tiny mass, negatively charged, mobile particles within atoms)
vvv. Know how to explain the emission of light from atoms: what is happening when
www. Know your chapter vocabulary
Know why the suborbitals have the shapes, what the different shapes are for different suborbitals and why electrons do not orbit the atom’s nucleus like the planets orbit the sun
Chapter 6:
Know what an element symbol is
Know which number is the atomic number and that that number is the number of protons in the nucleus AND that it is the number of electrons in an uncharged (neutral) atom
Know which number is the mass number in an element symbol box
Know how the energy level (quantum number, period number) is designated in longhand electron configuration (the large font numbers)
Know that the 7 energy levels (1,2,3,4,5,6,7) are the numbers of the periods (horizontal rows of periodic table)
Know the 4 suborbital letters (s,p,d,f) and where their blocks are located in the periodic table
Know that the superscript number above the suborbital letter is the number of electrons in that suborbital
Know that the groups of elements are numbered 1-18 and that the general rule is that the number (or the number minus 10) is the number of valence electrons for elements in that group
Know how to write the longhand electron configuration correctly using the Aufbau chart and scale
Know how to write the shorthand (noble gas) electron configuration using the Aufbau chart and the periodic table
Know how to find the number of valence electrons for Groups 1,2, 13, 14, 15,16,17,18 using the electron configuration and/or the periodic table
Know how to write the electron dot notation for any of the groups of elements in #11 above
Know why we talk about the behavior of light (all electromagnetic waves) is terms of both photon (particle behavior) and quantum (wave behavior) and why understanding this is important when discussing the behavior of electrons ( which are high energy, very tiny mass, negatively charged, mobile particles within atoms)
Know how to explain the emission of light from atoms: what is happening when
Know your chapter vocabulary
Know why the suborbitals have the shapes, what the different shapes are for different suborbitals and why electrons do not orbit the atom’s nucleus like the planets orbit the sun

Know how the energy level is designated in longhand electron configuration (the big numbers)

Know that the 7 energy levels are the numbers of the periods (horizontal rows of periodic table)

Know the 4 suborbital letters and where their blocks are located in the periodic table

Know that the superscript number above the suborbital letter is the number of electrons in that suborbital

Know that the groups of elements are numbered 1-18 and that the general rule is that the number (or the number minus 10) is the number of valence electrons for elements in that group

Know the names of the groups of elements: beginning at the left: Group 1 Alkalai, Group 2 alkaline earth, groups 3-12 transition metals, groups 13-16 nonmetals/metalloids/metals, Group 17 halogens and Group 18 Noble gases; inner transition metals: lanthanide and actinide series (f-block elements).

Know how to read orbital filling sequence scale of increasing energy (Aufbau chart)

Know how many electrons can fill each suborbital: s -2, p-6, d-10, f-14 max

Know how to add the number of electrons from the longhand electron configuration to verify the correct electrons for the element being studied

Know how to find the highest Energy level in an electron configuration

Know how to find the correct number of valence electrons

Know that the most electrons that can be in an electron dot notation is 8 because that is the number of electrons that provides the greatest stability to the atom even if it causes that atom to be charged (-) or (+) (octet rule)

Know about the element and discoverer you wrote about
Know which groups are in the s-block, the p-block, the d-block and which series are in the f-block

Know the names of discoverers of elements that had an influence on the development of the periodic table

Know that atoms have a radius and how that radius is measured

Know that atoms of the same element that chemically bond cause the radii of the atom to decrease

Know that the ions of atoms cause the atom to become larger if negatively charged and know why

Know that the ions of atoms cause the atom to become smaller if positively charged and know why

Be able to explain the reason for the trend of atom radii using a chart or table—both down a column (group) and across a period (horizontal row) from left to right

Be able to explain electronegativity of an atom and its first ion and how they trend in the periodic table

Be able to explain ionization energy for removing the first electron and the second electron from an atom and how they trend in the periodic table

Chapter 7:

Know the definitions for cations, anions, monoatomic ions, binary ions and polyatomic ions. Be able to identify them and be able to write one of each.

Be able to explain how a neutral atom becomes an ion based on its valence electrons and the electrons it gives away or gets in order to fulfill the octet rule.

Know that metals usually become cations and non-metals usually become anions.

Know that noble gases do not usually become ions.

Know that ionic bonds are held together by electrostatic forces and that metallic atoms/cations are held together by delocalized electrons (in the sea of electrons) to form metallic bonds.

Know what a formula is and what a formula unit is and what the difference is

When given 2 elements, know how to find the correct formula for that ionic compound

Know how to write the name for the ionic compound: 2 parts, 2 names: cation keeps its name and anion gets a suffix to go on its name

Know what the Roman numerals after a transition metal mean when writing a formula

Know the 10 properties of metals

Know the definition of an alloy

Know why alloys are useful—more than 1 reason

Be able to give several examples of alloys: names and what they mixtures are and what their uses are

Know the changes that occur when working metals such as steel and why those changes occur (from the metallurgy lab)

Chapter 8:

Know the definitions of the vocabulary

Know how to get the Lewis structure from the periodic table info about the elements of a molecule or from the formula:

Find the element symbol and valence electrons

arrange the valence electrons around the symbol, showing when electron are paired (and less likely to share) and the electrons that are not paired (and are more likely to share)

show how 2 or more atoms’ valence electrons can be shared by drawing a circle around them to show they are sharing and then by redrawing the Lewis dot notation as a Lewis structure (with lines) to show where the covalent bond(s)(shared electron pairs) are

the chapter list of steps is on p.254

3. Know about relative bond strength of ionic and covalent bonds (remember lab
with sugar, paraffin and salt)

Know that there are single, double and triple covalent bonds (shared electron pairs) and know the relative strength of each

Know how to write the chemical formula and/or Lewis structure from the molecular name

know how to write the molecular name from the chemical formula and/or Lewis
structure

know how to read the tables and charts for the polyatomic ions, oxyanions, prefixes for the number of atoms in a chemical formula and flowchart for naming molecules

know that there are exceptions to the octet rule: (A) incomplete octet and (B) expanded octet; see p. 258-260

The periodic table has periodicity.
A period on the periodic table represents the Energy level where those elements within it have their outermost electrons, their valence electrons.
Within a period are trends: reading the period from left to right: atomic radii increase
Elements occur in groups based on their number of protons & their outermost suborbital of electrons. Trends of groups include: reading from the top down: atomic radii increase
Ionic radii size compared to the neutral atom size is dependent on whether the atom gains or loses electrons.
Atoms which lose electrons have ionic radii smaller than their atomic radii and the trends both in the periods and in their representative groups remain the same.
Atoms which gain electrons have ionic radii larger than their atomic radii and
their trends when comparing ionic radii remain the same.
Ionization energy: the energy required to remove 1 electron from an atom in its gaseous state. Table 5, p. 192 compares the ionization energy of
Chapter 9:
Know what a chemical rxn is and how it is expressed.
products to the right of the rxn arrow. Plus (+) symbols are used between the reactants and between the products when there are more than one on either side of the reaction arrow.
Recognize chemical properties of rxn’s.
Know the steps to balancing chemical equations.
Know that chemical rxn’s can only be balanced after all of the reactants’ and all of the products’ correct chemical formulas are known.
Know that the chemical formulas cannot be modified when balancing chemical equations. Only the coefficients can be adjusted when balancing the equation.
Know that the coefficients in a balanced equation represents the number of units and that it represents the number of moles of each reactant and product in the rxn.
Know the 5 major types of chemical rxn’s and how to recognize them.
Know that chemical rxn’s that take place in aqueous solutions have ionic equations. These rxn’s have net ionic equations based on the ions which actually change places and form a precipitate (solid), a gas or more water.
Know how to write a balanced chemical rxn equation, ionic equation and net ionic equation.

Chapter 11: Stoichiometry
All of stoichiometry draws from the things learned in chapters 9 and 10 (the mole). You need to recall of these facts and relationships.
Know how to use balanced chemical equations to calculate the quantitative relationships between the reactants and the products. There are mole-mole, mole-mass (mass-mole) and mass-mass relationship problems.
Know how to use any of the above relationship problems to determine which reactant is the limiting reactant and which is the reactant in excess.
Knowing that the actual yield of a chemical rxn is less than the theoretical yield, the percent yield can be calculated using the following rxn:

Actual yield/theoretical yield x 100%

Review the role bicarbonate plays in removing the waste product CO2 from the blood and in baking things requiring leavening. See p. 308.
Review the article in chemistry and health on the HIV drug PA-457. There will be one question on it. P. 389.
Chapter 10: The Mole
Section 1: know who Avogadro was 23
: memorize Avogadro’s number: 6.02 x 10 of anything!!!!!!!!
: this number is a mole of something ^ ( just like a dozen of something is 12, so a mole of something is 6.02 x 10 to the 23rd power!!!!!!)
:a mole is an Avogadro’s number of very small particles: such as a mole of atoms or a mole of ions or a mole of molecules (covalently bonded) or a mole of a formula units (ionically bonded)
: know how to convert from the number of moles (like 3 moles) to the number of very small particles (like 3 x Avogadro’s #)
Section 2: molar mass means the mass of the mole of something---you just need to
know what elements and how many atoms of those elements are in that
something!!!!!
:how do you find the “mole” mass?????? Element🡪periodic table🡪atomic
Mass #🡪 put “grams” after that # and you have “mole” mass for that element!!!
Section 3: ionic compound’s “mole” mass??? Look at formula🡪 find “mole” mass for
each element and multiply each “mole” mass times the subscript for that
element; then add the “mole” mass for each of the elements in the formula to
get the “mole” mass for the whole ionic compound!!!!(:
Section 4: molecular compound’s “mole” mass??? Look at the formula🡪 follow the
same plan as for ionic compounds
: empirical formulas may not equal the real molecular formula when solving for
some compounds so🡪 look at solved formula and do what????? (Fill-in space
now or when we do review
Section 5: hydrate’s “mole” mass??????? Look at the formula with the dot followed by a coefficient # and then H O 🡪 add the “mole” mass for that # of water molecules to the “mole” mass for the formula and you have the “mole”mass for the hydrate!!!!!!!!!
Use math (additions, multiplication, fractions, percents and proportion equations) and the dimensional analysis to keep track of units. Use the formula triangle if that works for you to find mass, “mole” mass and number of moles. Use these to find % composition of a compound (use the chemical formula).

Chapter 12: States of Matter

Know the 3 states of matter (not including plasma) and how each state of matter can be explained in terms of the kinetic energy of the particles at each state

Understand that the kinetic-molecular model is just that-- b/c it has certain assumptions that are not always met. However, it is useful for explaining how states of matter behave and for understanding the 6 different types of phase change (going from one state to another).

Know the relationship between kinetic energy (KE) and temperature; understand what KE means in terms of how much movement exists for the particles in each state of matter

Know that the pressure that a gas exerts on its container is the outward push and that in a regular laboratory there is always the pressure exerted by the gases of earth’s atmosphere on everything. (The study of the behavior of gases under pressure is pneumatics.)

Know the experiment that Torricelli did to measure air pressure.

Recognize the units used to express air pressure: pascal, torr, psi, mm Hg, atm and millibar.

Know Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

Know the intermolecular forces: dispersion forces exist between/among all particles and are weak when particles are small but are stronger as particle size increases; dipole-dipole exist between/among polar covalent molecules all of the time, being stronger than dispersion forces when the polar covalent molecules are small and highly polar but not as strong a dispersion forces when polar covalent molecules increase in size or are weakly polar. Hydrogen bonding is a special case of dipole-dipole force that exists when hydrogen atoms are bonded to highly electronegative atoms.

Know that liquids are only slightly compressible compared to gases; the studies of these behaviors in liquids includes hydraulics, hydrostatics and hydrodynamics

Know the properties of liquids and what particle behavior contributes to them: fluidity, viscosity and its relation to temperature, the effects of adhesion and cohesion—including surface tension and capillary action.

Know the amorphous and crystalline natures of solids.

Know the 5 categories of crystalline solids: atomic, molecular, covalent networks, ionic and metallic. (go back to chap 3 if you need more review)

Know the phase changes that require an input of energy; melting, vaporizing, boiling, sublimation; the phase changes that release energy: freezing, condensing, deposition.

Know how to read a phase diagram and where to find the triple point and what it means: temperature vs pressure graph and the point at which all 6 phases can exist.

Be able to respond to the article on Chocolate Chemistry, p. 431.

Chapter 13: Gases

Kinetic-molecular theory of gases: see text for all of its points

Know that air pressure or atmospheric pressure or gas pressure can be expressed in different units: Table 1, p. 407.

Know that a volume of a fixed amount of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure when the temperature is constant: V1 P1=V2 P2

Know that the volume of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature when the pressure is constant: V1T1 = V2T2

Know that the pressure of a fixed amount of gas is directly proportional to its Kelvin temperature when the volume is constant: P1T1 = P2T2

Know that the combined gas laws are a single statement:
P1 V1T1=P2V2T2 , when the # of moles of the gas is constant (unchanging/fixed amount) and T is in Kelvins.

Avogadro’s principle: equal volumes of different gases at the same T and P contain equal numbers of particles (atoms, molecules, etc). Molar volume derives from this principle: when the number of particles is 1 mole and T=0.0*C and P= 1 atm (STP), then the volume=22.4 L. (Note: this is true only for gases at STP, not liquids or solids.) Use the combined gas law to correct volumes or pressures for non-standard P and T.

Know the ideal gas law: PV=nRT , when n=mM = the number of moles and m= mass of the gas in grams and M=molar mass of the gas. R=the ideal gas constant (see table 2, p.454)

Know the molar mass formula and the density formula for gases based on the ideal gas law. This means taking the ideal gas law equation and rearranging it to solve for mass, m, or density, D= mV . Using the ideal gas law equation: PV= mM RT or mV = PMRT = D of a gas.

Know that at very high pressures, very low temperatures and high molar masses, real gases behave differently than ideal gases.


Know stoichiometry as it relates to balanced equations that contain gases and how to include the gas laws in those calculations.

Your text specifically gives you examples of volume-volume problems (when T and P do not need to be accounted for, see p.461) and

volume-mass problems related to gases and stoichiometric calculations.

(Mole-volume relationships are found with balanced chemical equations but masses need to be converted to moles or volumes before being used in ratios and T and P may need to be used, also.)