Notes

Elements of Art

Line: A line helps direct the viewer’s attention. You can emphasize the main subject in a composition by using lines. Look at the photograph of the long driveway with a house at the end of it. Notice how the two parallel lines that are the road’s edges lead the viewer to focus on the house. You can also use lines to divide different images as sections in a photograph. In the photograph of the nursery, note how the lines separate the different sections. The lines in a photograph can be real (such as the lines on a road) or implied (birds flying in a V shape).

Shape: A shape is a two-dimensional figure that has a distinct outline of height and width. Capturing interesting shapes adds appeal to a photograph. Shapes can be geometric or organic. Geometric shapes include polygons (squares, triangles, and so on), circles, or a combination of these shapes. Organic shapes are those you find in nature, such as leaves or branches.

Form: A form is a three-dimensional figure with height, width, and depth. Like shapes, forms are either geometric or organic. Cones and spheres are examples of geometric forms, whereas mountains and trees are organic forms. Adding a form to your photograph will make it appear lifelike in three dimensions. You can also create this effect by controlling the lighting in a photograph. For example, you can combine light and shadow to present a three-dimensional effect in the image.

Space: Space is another element that brings a photograph to life. Space can be positive or negative. Positive space is the space that the primary subjects occupy in a photographic composition. Negative space is the space between these primary subjects. The foreground, middle ground, and background in a composition house these spaces. For example, in the photograph of the lighthouse, the lighthouse and rocks are the positive space. The surrounding negative space in this photographic composition makes the lighthouse and rocks appear in the foreground, the sea in the middle ground, and the sky in the background.

Color: Color is one of the basic and most powerful elements of art in a photographic composition. The primary, secondary, and tertiary colors form the color wheel. Primary colors are those you can’t obtain by mixing other colors. They are red, blue, and yellow. Secondary colors come from mixing two primary colors. You obtain tertiary colors by mixing a primary color with a secondary color that adjoins it on the color wheel. Using these colors in different combinations can enhance an image. For example, the complementary (opposite) colors of red and green highlight festivities such as Christmas. Colors convey a variety of emotions, and you can cleverly capture colors to make your photographic composition attractive.

Texture: Texture is a characteristic of surface that describes an object’s physical quality, such as smooth, silky, or coarse. In a photographic composition, visual textures add life to an image and make it appear more realistic.

Tone (or value): Tone represents the amount of white (lightness) or black (darkness) in a photographic composition. Black-and-white photographs use tone instead of color. Tone helps you give volume to an image by creating a contrast, or difference, between light and dark shades. The combination and contrast of black and white gives the viewer a vintage, authentic sense.

Principles of Art

Balance: Balance conveys a sense of stability or equilibrium in a photographic composition. You can show balance by repeating the same shapes and maintaining an equal distribution of the objects in a composition. Balance can also be an illusion; a dark object “weighs” more visually than a light object, so placing a large white object against a small dark object creates a sense of balance.

Unity: A photographic composition achieves unity when all the parts or objects in the composition convey a single unified meaning. In the second image, the orange sky, dark mountains, and flying birds unite to convey the view of a sunset. Photographers also refer to unity as harmony.

Contrast: Contrast is the use of different or opposite elements in a photographic composition. You can achieve contrast using the following attributes:

color: use bright and dull colors
shape: use geometric and organic shapes
size: use large and small objects
values: use elements of dark and light
texture: use plain and smooth textures
The variety that contrast creates enhances the look of the photograph and creates visual excitement in the viewer.

Emphasis: Emphasis refers to how you draw the viewer’s attention to the important parts of your photographic composition. It makes a particular item noticeable by controlling different elements in the image. You can control emphasis by applying contrast (a distinct color, size, or shape). You can also create emphasis through strategic placement of the object of interest or by isolating it from other objects in a composition.

Movement (rhythm): Movement, as the term implies, is a sense of motion that directs the viewer’s eye across a photographic composition. Rhythm gives a sense of organized movement, such that the viewer’s eye travels to the focal point in a composition.

Pattern (repetition): Repetition of any element of art in a composition creates a pattern. Repetition could involve cyclic use of shapes, design, color, or any other element. Repetition tends to bring an image together and also helps form rhythm. A flight of stairs or the stripes on a tiger are common examples of pattern.

Gestalt principles describe how people tend to organize visual elements into groups, or unified wholes, when applying certain principles. Gestalt (“unified whole”) includes theories of visual perception that German psychologists developed in the 1920s. To understand and apply this psychology in photography, you need to understand gestalt concepts. Gestalt principles include closure, continuance, similarity, proximity, alignment, figure and ground, and symmetry. These concepts are important tools for creating unity in a composition.

Closure is the process by which the human brain views a partially visible complex object as a whole. This includes a shape, an image, or a picture. In other words, if you can see the significant aspects of a composition, your perception puts together the missing portions to complete the image. In the first image, for example, you can make out from the partial image of a tire that the object is a bicycle.

Continuance relates to the direction of view in a composition. When you start viewing a composition in a definite direction, you continue viewing in the same direction until you encounter something important or different. You can achieve continuance by using paths (such as tracks and roads) to direct the viewer to a noticeable aspect.

Similarity relates to the tendency of the human brain to keep track of visual information by grouping items. For example, notice the first image. Our minds will group similar items and form a cross of the white squares, with the four red squares appearing as dots in the corners. Similarity is a grouping approach that helps achieve design unity. You can achieve similarity in three ways: using size (smaller or larger), value/color, and shape (direction and texture) of the items.

Proximity defines the relative position of items in a composition. Elements placed together will appear as a group and form a figure within an image. A combination of proximity and similarity adds immense value to a design. In the second image, for example, the proximity of the red candles makes you focus on these three candles. This effectively blurs the background. Such photographs make a lasting impression on viewers.

Alignment is an extension of proximity. It refers to the placement of items in a linear way. You can achieve two types of alignment: edge alignment (with flat edges and rectangles) and center alignment (along a vertical or horizontal axis). In the third image, look at how the red candles align to create a sense of unity in the composition.

Figure and ground is a concept that distinguishes an item from its surroundings in a photographic composition. A figure is a silhouette or any shaped item, and ground represents the background or the surroundings in a composition. Synchronizing the figure–ground relationship makes a composition more striking. For example, look at the image showing the silhouette (figure) of a man against the background (ground) of the evening sky.

Symmetry refers to using items with symmetrical shapes or sizes to create a pleasing sense of balance and proportion. In the second image, the symmetry of the flamingos as they drink water creates a striking view.


Rules of Composition

Rule of thirds: According to the rule of thirds, if you divide your photo into nine equal parts, the subject should occupy either one-third or two-thirds of the frame. In other words, create a 3-by-3 grid with two horizontal and two vertical lines. Then place the subject on one of the points of intersection or along the imaginary lines. You will notice that the composition looks more natural, appealing, and balanced. The unequal weightage of the elements in the frame draws the viewer’s attention.

Rule of odds: The rule of odds states that compositions with an odd number of subjects attract the human eye. Studies show that people can relate better to photos that have an odd number of subjects. An even number of subjects appears symmetrical and less natural in a composition intended to be informal. If your photograph has more than one subject, apply the rule of odds and use an odd number of subjects.

Rule of space: According to the rule of space, you can create an illusion of movement or context by adding space along the direction of the subject’s eyes or movement. For example, if you are capturing a car racing around a track, leave some space in front of the vehicle to show its direction of travel. If you want to show a person thinking about something, leave space along the direction of the subject’s eyes. This technique will transform your photograph into one that communicates with its viewers.

Lines: When people view a photograph, they tend to see the elements along straight lines because of their natural tendency to group or align objects. Lines are powerful elements that can alter a composition’s mood. You will find that using lines not only directs the viewer’s line of sight but also makes the composition dynamic. Lines can be vertical, horizontal, curvy, diagonal, or zigzag. You can enclose objects in a frame with the clever use of lines. You will also discover that you can create effective patterns that tell a story through your composition.

Simplification: Simplification is a technique that removes clutter so that the viewer focuses on the main subject rather than the additional elements in a composition. You can reduce clutter by adjusting lighting and using lines or contrasting colors. Common examples that require simplification are architectural images and landscapes. Look at the image showing the interior of a restaurant. Notice that it achieves simplification by using lines to capture an organized composition.

Selective focus: Limiting the focus, which is also a method of simplification, targets the primary subject and removes others in a composition. When you photograph a picture, ask yourself, “What is the focal point or subject of interest?” If you can’t identify and convey this focal point in your photograph, viewers will move their eyes over it and go on to the next image. Help viewers discover the central point that will hold their interest. To do this, limit your focus and concentrate on the focal point (building, tree, person, and so on). You can enhance the focal point by using contrasting shapes, colors, or sizes; you can also use a prominent position (rule of thirds) or by blurring. In the image of leaves, notice how the focus on the dewdrops increases because of the blurred background. Photographers sometimes refer to selective focus as selective focus depth.

Sense of movement: When you capture moving objects, such as galloping horses, cars, or runners, you should leave space in front of the moving object. This space is the active space, and the space behind the object is dead space. The motive for using this technique in a composition is to give the viewer a feeling of anticipation and drama. It helps make the motion come alive so that viewers can connect with the composition. For example, in the image, the dead space behind the horse is filled with dust. The space in front of the horse, the active space, gives an impression that there is space for the horse to gallop into. This adds a sense of action to the image.

Filled frame:Filling the frame of a photograph is one of the simplest and most basic rules of composition. When you capture a picture, you need to ensure that the objects in the frame have some significance to the main subject. Even if you blur an object through selective focus, its shape and color adds value to the frame. You can have empty space, but use it effectively so that it does not appear to be a void. When you capture a crowd in a stadium, line them along the corners, not haphazardly. Because you can’t capture their facial expressions, keep them behind the main subject (players or field). Finally, you should fill your frame cleverly, covering the prominent and essential areas and moving the other objects to the background or omitting them.

The two primary techniques you can use to fill the frame are framing and cropping. Framing is an in-camera function, where you appropriately frame an image using lenses (especially zoom lenses). Cropping is a post-production technique for reframing images and removing extra elements. Your final image will appear impressively filled rather than incomplete.

Framing: Framing has an immense effect on a photographic composition. When you take a photo, check the edges of the frame. Did you cut off or crop out anything important? Are any distracting elements emerging from any edge of the frame? Making sure that the focus is on the subject in an effective frame will add substance to your image. You can frame a composition using windows, doorways, archways, tunnels, or tree branches. Look at how the frame of branches surrounding the owl and moon in the night sky makes the composition appear natural.

Angle of view: The angle from which you take a picture makes a big difference in the composition. For example, you can photograph a building from a close angle. From that angle, you can fill the frame, cover details or patterns, and alter the light or shade falling on the building. Try capturing the same building from alternate angles; it will appear different. You can capture interesting views with different angles, including low, high, and experimental (such as bird’s-eye view) angles.

Eyeline rule: The eyeline rule applies to photographing portraits. When you capture a person’s image close up, as in a portrait, keep the following points in mind. The eyes are the most expressive part of a human face, and they naturally draw the viewer’s attention. Pay attention to the subject’s eye alignment and gaze. The eyeline refers to the direction that the subject’s eyes follow. In a photographic composition, eyeline also refers to the portrait’s alignment of both eyes, apart from the line of sight. Follow the eyeline and capture a shot that covers most of it. In addition, keep the subject’s eyes above the centerline in a portrait.

Lead the eye: A photographic composition should lead the viewer’s eye through all elements before leading out of the composition. You can use patterns or natural elements (trees, a path, or a stream) to lead the movement of the eye.