Notes

324
Emperor Constantine I Founds the City of Constantinople
Roman Emperor Constantine founded the city of Constantinople in AD 324. Constantinople became the capital of the Byzantine Empire

476
Fall of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire fell in the West because of civil and military unrest. The empire in the East became the Byzantine Empire.

527
Justinian I Becomes Emperor
Justinian I claimed the throne of the Byzantine Empire in AD 527. The Byzantine Empire enjoyed its most glorious period under his reign.

532 — 537
Construction of Hagia Sophia
Hagia Sophia, originally built as a cathedral, is an enduring monument of the Byzantine Empire. It’s a well-known tourist attraction and presently functions as a museum.

726 — 842
The Iconoclastic Controversy
The Iconoclastic Controversy led to the destruction of traditional Christian images called icons. This controversy caused a conflict between the military and the church.

1054
The Great Schism
In AD 1054, Christianity split into the Roman Catholic Church in the West and the Eastern Orthodox Church in the East. This split became known as the Great Schism.

1204
Fourth Crusade Attacks Constantinople
During the Fourth Crusade, an army from western Europe attacked Constantinople in AD 1204. This attack was a fatal blow to the Byzantine Empire.


1453
Byzantine Empire Falls to the Ottoman Turks
Under the leadership of Sultan Mehmed II, the Ottoman Turks conquered Constantinople in AD 1453. This marked the end of the Byzantine Empire.

The Origin and Rise of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire lasted more than 1,100 years. At its height, it was the largest and most powerful empire in the world. In this lesson, we will explore some of its cultural achievements.

During the Byzantine Empire, religion became a major source of conflict. Christianity underwent important changes. These religious conflicts and changes had far-reaching consequences in world history.

Let’s look back at the beginning of the Byzantine Empire


The Origin of the Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire dates back to AD 324, when Roman emperor Constantine I began constructing the city of Constantinople. In 330, Constantine shifted the Roman capital to Constantinople. This act divided the Roman Empire into eastern and western regions.

Constantine’s death in 337 weakened the Roman Empire. Invaders such as the Vandals capitalized on Rome’s weakness. They attacked Rome in 476. The western Roman Empire crumbled under the pressure of this attack.

Soon after, the western Roman Empire separated into rival states. However, the eastern part remained united in the form of the Byzantine Empire.



Constantine’s Legacy
Constantine I ruled the Roman Empire from AD 306 to 337. Although he never ruled the Byzantine Empire, he left his mark on it. Many historians view the establishment of Constantinople as the founding of the Byzantine Empire, even though it wasn’t a separate empire until Rome fell.

Constantine also played a vital role in the spread of Christianity. His conversion to Christianity helped the religion develop in both the eastern and western Roman Empires. He promoted Christian teachings in Constantinople. This encouraged people to adopt Christianity. As a result, Christianity became the main religion of the Byzantine Empire.

Historians consider the city of Constantinople among Constantine’s greatest achievements. Constantinople’s ideal location made it a commercial and trading center. It also became the economic, political, and cultural powerhouse in the Mediterranean after the Roman Empire fell.

The Empire under Justinian I
Justinian I claimed the Byzantine throne in AD 527. Among his most important acts as emperor was creating the Code of Justinian. This code declared Christianity as the state religion of the Byzantine Empire. The empire derived its fundamental political rules and laws from the Code of Justinian.

But Justinian wasn’t popular with everyone. During his reign, Constantinople was divided into the Green and the Blue factions. They supported different sides in chariot races. The rivalry between them sometimes escalated to violence and even murder.

To maintain order in Constantinople, Justinian executed members of both factions for murder. This enraged the factions. They made Justinian their target. One night at the Hippodrome, a stadium used for horse and chariot races, things became tense and riots broke out. Justinian was only able to avert disaster thanks to the bravery and determination of his wife, Theodora.

Justinian’s reign only strengthened after the riots. The riots had left Constantinople in a damaged state. Many of its buildings and streets were wrecked. The destruction allowed Justinian to leave his mark as he rebuilt the city.

The construction of Hagia Sophia began in AD 532 under Justinian’s rule. It is considered the greatest Byzantine cathedral in history.

By Justinian’s death in 565, the Byzantine Empire had reached its greatest geographical extent. It included Greece, Italy, Spain, the North African coast, and most of the Middle East.

Religion in Crisis
Religion underwent radical changes during the Byzantine rule. These changes challenged how society viewed religious symbols.

The Iconoclastic Controversy
The Byzantine Empire continued to successfully defend its lands long after Justinian’s death. However, in AD 726, a religious conflict gripped the empire. This conflict wasn’t related to armies, but to art.
The Byzantine people used images called icons during worship. These icons had deep connections with the Christian church. The people of the Byzantine Empire valued these icons for both their religious meaning and their beauty.

In the sixth and seventh centuries, Muslim Arabs launched numerous attacks on the Byzantine Empire. Although the empire successfully defended its core regions, it lost many territories. These attacks caused the faith of many people in the empire to waver.

The Byzantine Emperor Leo III was filled with doubt. He wondered whether the Arabs’ religion had contributed to Arab successes. He started opposing Christian religious icons.

Watch the video on the following screen. It helps explain the rise of iconoclasm in the empire and the Iconoclastic Controversy.

The Iconoclastic Controversy lasted for more than a century, from AD 726 to 842. The conflict eventually resolved when Empress Theodora (the wife of Emperor Theophilos) reestablished the use of icons. Note that this Empress Theodora is a different woman from the Empress Theodora who married Justinian I.

Many factors contributed to the restoration of icons. First, the controversy had split and weakened the empire. Resolving the controversy helped maintain unity in the church and the empire.

Second, destroying icons meant that the empire had to kill or excommunicate those who used these icons during worship. Instead of taking such extreme measures, it was easier to accept the use of icons.

Today, Eastern Orthodox churches still use icons during worship. People continue to value icons both for their beauty and their religious symbolism.

The Great Schism of 1054:
The East and West Part Ways
The resolution of the Iconoclastic Controversy benefited the Byzantine Empire. Now that the empire was united again, it could defend its borders from the Arabs more effectively. It regained its lost power. By 1025, it had established itself as the strongest empire in the East.

However, another religious conflict threatened the empire’s stability in the eleventh century. This conflict occurred between the Christian churches of the East and the West. It started with only a few words, but it caused a complete and lasting division in Christianity. Watch the video on the next screen to learn more about the Great Schism of 1054.

Pope Leo IX was the head of Christianity in the West when the Great Schism of 1054 occurred.
In the video, the narrator used the word filioque. Filioque means “from the son.” The Roman Catholic Church added this word to scripture. This addition implied that the Holy Spirit came from the father and the son.

The Greek tradition viewed changes made to scripture as heresy—a denial of truth and a crime against faith itself. They rejected the Roman Catholic Church’s addition to scripture. They continued following the idea that the Holy Spirit descended solely from the father.

This conflict reached new heights in 1054. The pope excommunicated the Eastern patriarch and his followers. In response, the Eastern patriarch excommunicated the pope and his followers.

Christianity split into the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The pope lost all power and authority in the East. Similarly, the Eastern patriarch had no say over religious happenings in the West.

Although both churches had excommunicated one another, they maintained some similarities. For example, both drew their beliefs from the New Testament in the Bible. Both the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church practiced the ritual of mass, which celebrates the resurrection of Christ.

However, the two churches differed on hierarchy, language, and whether priests could marry. Let’s look at these differences.

The Fall of the Byzantine Empire
After the Great Schism, the Byzantine Empire started declining. Internal and external threats, such as civil wars and invasions, split the empire.

The empire still managed to score some victories over its opponents, composed primarily of the Arabs. However, it was getting increasingly difficult for the empire to protect its numerous territories.

In 1099, the western European countries launched a series of crusades. These crusades were meant to liberate Jerusalem and Palestine from Muslim control.

The Byzantine emperor saw that these crusaders were opposed to Muslim rule. He believed that they would join him in defending Constantinople against Muslim invaders.

The emperor, however, was wrong. The crusaders intended to win over the city’s riches for themselves. Instead of becoming Constantinople’s allies, they became its enemies.

During the Fourth Crusade of 1204, the western Europeans attacked Constantinople and sacked the city. Meeting no resistance from Byzantine forces, the crusaders looted Constantinople’s riches. They also destroyed many important buildings.

After the Fourth Crusade of 1204, the Byzantine Empire became significantly weaker. Muslim invaders started overcoming the empire’s defenses more easily. The extent of the empire’s territories started to shrink.



The Ottomans Destroy
the Empire
A small Muslim group, the Ottoman Turks, began to rise in power in 1299. The Ottomans continued to increase their territory throughout the fourteenth century. Their numerous conquests made them the leading power in the Muslim world.

By 1451, the Ottomans had surrounded the city of Constantinople. They finally laid siege to Constantinople in 1453. This siege spelled the end of the Byzantine Empire.




The Byzantine Empire’s Legacy
The Byzantine Empire left a rich legacy, especially in the fields of art and architecture. Hagia Sophia, which was originally a cathedral, functioned as a mosque under the Ottomans. It remains an enduring example of Byzantine architecture and is an international historical site today.

Byzantine icons, mosaics, and illuminated manuscripts are examples of Byzantine art and high culture. They continue to inspire artists worldwide. The manuscripts, called codices, were the first bound books. The Byzantines recorded classical ancient Greek and Roman knowledge that had been lost to the Western world in these codices.

After capturing Constantinople, the Muslim conquerors renamed it Istanbul. However, the city preserved its status as the center of culture and a bridge between the East and the West. Its rich history and culture continue to make it a major destination for travelers today.