Notes

600 — 900
Height of the Maya Civilization

1100 — 1535
Height of the Inca Civilization
The Inca Civilization was the largest pre-Columbian civilization in America. The Inca are remembered for their rich, detailed arts and textiles and their advanced system of government.

1325 — 1521
Height of the Aztec Civilization
The Aztec rose to power in 1325 when they founded the city of Tenochtitlán at the site of present-day Mexico City. They became wealthy by developing complex systems for growing and irrigating crops.

Early Origins
Early humans reached the Americas long before people in Europe, Asia, or Africa knew that the American continents even existed. We’ll look at the migration patterns and major settlements that took place in the Americas over many centuries while the rest of the world went through its own cultural development.

Some historians and anthropologists think that the first humans crossed the Bering Strait from Siberia to the Americas around 15,000 years ago. These pre-Columbian peoples continued to migrate across the American continents along the routes shown in the map.

Next, you’ll watch a video about the process of early human settlement in the Americas.



The map shows where each of these civilizations lived:

Maya: present-day Yucatan, Guatemala, and Belize
Aztec: mostly in present-day Mexico
Inca: stretched about 3,000 miles across South America from present-day Ecuador to Chile


The Maya, Aztec, and Inca civilizations developed outside of what’s called the major world network. The civilizations of Europe, Africa, and Asia traded and communicated with each other, which added to their development. They benefited from borrowing each other’s ideas and techniques.

In contrast, the Maya, Aztec, and Inca were isolated from European, African, and Asian societies. The Inca also didn’t have any contact with the Maya or the Aztec. So the Amerindian civilizations took longer to reach the classical stage than the other world civilizations did.

The Amerindian civilizations’ isolation meant that they didn’t benefit from shared technology and long-distance trade. But on the plus side, it helped them avoid disease and conflict. Once the Amerindian civilizations developed, however, they created cultures as great and complex as those in the rest of the world.The Olmec and the Maya
The Maya built a magnificent empire in the rain forests of present-day Central America. Their economy was based on agriculture. They grew crops such as avocados, tobacco, and pumpkins. These plentiful crops were the foundation of their civilization.

In addition to agriculture, the Maya also built well-designed cities. But before we learn more about the Maya, let's look at a culture that predates them—the Olmec.



The Olmec
The Olmec civilization thrived from 1500 BC to 800 BC. It began before all other Mesoamerican civilizations. Historical evidence shows that it was highly advanced. The Olmec followed a polytheistic model of religion, which means they worshipped multiple gods. They created political and religious organizations, farming methods, and creative arts that later civilizations would follow.

The Olmec also were skilled at business. They traded with neighboring civilizations such as the Zapotecs. The Zapotecs were another advanced people. They built a successful capital city at the site of Monte Alban in southern Mexico.

Mystery surrounds the Olmec civilization. Historians know little about how it began or the reasons for its decline.

The Maya
The Maya began living in the area south of the Olmec heartland around 1000 BC. Their civilization peaked between AD 600 and AD 900. Like the Olmec, the Maya held polytheistic religious beliefs. Let’s look at some achievements of the Maya.

Academics
The Maya were educated. They created an advanced language and a hieroglyphic writing system. The Maya and India are thy two early civilizations to independently devise the concept of zero in mathematics.

Religion
Several Maya innovations involved religion. They used their highly accurate calendar to track religious observances. This calendar system could calculate back hundreds of thousands of years. The Maya also created colorful costumes and artwork to celebrate their gods.

Agriculture
The Maya were the first people to grow maize, or corn, on a large scale. Their farming methods depended on human labor because they had no wheeled machines or domesticated animals. Most Maya were agricultural workers.

Architecture
The Maya also made advances in architecture. They built ceremonial structures such as a temple at Palenque that honored the achievements of Pacal, a great Maya king.

Historians aren’t sure why the Maya Empire declined. They think the cause may have been invasion, revolt, or famine.



The Great Pyramid is located at Chichen Itza. It’s one of the ancient world’s greatest feats of engineering and astronomy.

On the next screen, you’ll watch a video about this pyramid. Workers built it during the vernal equinox, which occurs in March each year in the Northern Hemisphere. The autumnal equinox occurs six months later, in September. During an equinox, day and night are approximately equal, and the sun is in a specific place in relation to Earth. The Maya had observed this phenomenon for centuries.

While watching the video, remember that the Maya achieved an amazing illusion without engineering instruments or telescopes. Also watch closely for the snake, Kukulkan.

The Aztec
Let's turn our attention to the civilization that ended at the hands of the Spanish conquistadors in AD 1521. Historians think the Aztec began as a nomadic tribe. They began settling the area of present-day central Mexico around AD 1325.

Government
The Aztec were warlike people whose empire was based on a tribute system. Any cities or states they conquered had to pay heavy tributes to the Aztec ruler. These tributes included animal products, food, paper, and warrior armor. Rulers such as Moctezuma II, the ill-fated last Aztec emperor, used force to maintain power. Regions that failed to pay tribute faced brutal punishment.



Agriculture and Hunting
The Aztec supported their 20 million people by farming on a large scale. They grew crops such as sweet potatoes, beans, corn, and squash. They raised dogs and turkeys for meat. The Aztec also fished and hunted for wild game.

Religion
Like the Maya and Olmec, the Aztec were polytheistic. They worshipped several gods. One was Quetzalcoatl, the “god-king.” Aztec beliefs required them to make frequent human sacrifices to Quetzalcoatl.


Culture
The Aztec built their culture on the legacy of the Zapotec, Maya, and Olmec civilizations. They built floating gardens called chinampas. On these artificial islands, they grew crops such as maize, beans, squash, chili peppers, and tomatoes. The Aztec also grew flowers on chinampas, which added color and beauty to their farm fields. They also built a series of temples, including the Templo Mayor, in the 1300s and 1400s prior to the arrival of Spanish explorers.

Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, had a population of about 200,000 people. It was named for its founder, the ruler Tenoch. The city’s impressive art and architecture attracted Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés, who eventually conquered the Aztec. Cortés compared Tenochtitlán to the Italian city of Venice. He said Tenochtitlán was “the most beautiful city in the world.”

Most of the city is gone now. But the video on the next screen will give you a glimpse of how the city looked. The video also describes the city’s most important building, Templo Mayor.

The Chavin and the Inca
Now we’ll head south to the site of two more Amerindian civilizations. The Chavin and Inca civilizations were geographically vast. They spanned more than 3,000 miles from north to south, from present-day Ecuador into Chile. The Chavin were in power from approximately 900 BC to AD 200, and the Inca civilization spanned from AD 1100 to 1535.

The Chavin and Inca are Andean civilizations. This name comes from the Andes Mountains, which rise near the Pacific coast of South America through Peru and south into Chile.

The Chavin
The Chavin were among the first people to settle near the Andes Mountains. Their economy depended on agriculture, fishing, and hunting. The Chavin developed irrigation methods that allowed them to farm near lagoons and rivers. They also domesticated animals such as llamas, which they used for trade, food, and transportation. The later Andean civilizations followed Chavin cultural patterns.

Archaeologists study the Chavin culture and history through the ruins of Chavin de Huantar. These ruins are located in Peru, in the Andean uplands north of Lima. Chavin de Huantar was a ceremonial gathering place and a social center because of its location at the headwaters of the Marañón River between the coast and the jungle.

The Inca
Historians believe that the early Inca were nomads. They settled in the Cuzco valley in Peru around AD 1100.

Like the Egyptians, the Inca practiced a religion based on sun worship. The Inca believed that their rulers descended directly from the sun god, Inti. In fact, the Inca called their emperor the Son of the Sun.

The Inca throne was passed on by heredity and marriage. The Inca called their kings capac. Members of the noble class were known as Inka. Inca society also included provincial governors called kurakas who controlled clanlike family units called ayllus. Other important Inca were the chasqui, who traveled the Inca road system to deliver messages and goods.

The Inca constructed sophisticated road and rope bridge systems. These systems helped them travel and communicate with others, which allowed them to extend and unify their empire. Like the Chavin, the Inca domesticated animals such as llamas for transportation.

The Inca had no writing system. However, they did use colored cords called quipus to record and preserve their history.

Some of those records suggest that the Inca were more tolerant and less brutal than the Aztec. Unlike the Aztec, they didn’t practice human sacrifice.

Huayana Capac was the most important Inca leader. In addition to being the emperor, he was also a bold warrior. However, Capac committed the biggest mistake in Inca history before he died. Instead of leaving behind a unified empire, he divided it between his two sons. These brothers, Atahualpa and Huascar, were constantly at odds with each other. As a result, civil war broke out in the Inca kingdom just after Capac died. This civil war played a major role in the Inca’s downfall.

On the next screen, you’ll watch a video about the royal retreat of Machu Picchu, one of the most famous Inca sites. Emperor Pachacuti constructed this city high in the Andes.