Notes

509 BC
The Founding of the Roman Republic
A monarchy ruled Rome in its early history. The last Roman king was said to be a cruel and harsh leader. According to early records, the people of Rome overthrew this king and established a new form of government called a republic.

264 B.C. — 146 B.C.
The Punic Wars
The Roman Republic grew to be powerful and expanded quickly in the Mediterranean region. As it did, the republic met with many enemies. In the Punic Wars, Rome battled with the Carthaginians for control of the Mediterranean Sea. After three long and violent wars, Rome succeeded in expanding its territory in the Mediterranean region, including into North Africa.

44 B.C.
The Assassination of Caesar
Early in 44 BC, Julius Caesar forced the Roman Senate to name him dictator of Rome for life. However, his reign did not last long. Senators who resented his rise to power plotted against him and killed him. After Caesar's death, Rome plunged into a period of instability.

27 B.C.
The Beginning of the Roman Empire
Octavian, Caesar’s grand-nephew, was a great military leader who captured Egypt in 30 BC and became the ruler of Rome. In 27 BC, Octavian was renamed “Augustus” by the Senate and became the first emperor of Rome.

27 B.C. — 180
The Pax Romana
The first two centuries of the Roman Empire were marked by great success. During this time, the empire expanded its territory, established a solid government, and became wealthy from trade. Historians call this era of Roman prosperity the Pax Romana, which translates to “Roman peace.”


Origins of Rome
Rome was one of the most powerful civilizations in ancient times. Rome was built in what is now Italy, a peninsula in southern Europe.

Geography played a big role in the founding of Rome. For example, rugged mountain ranges, such as the Alps, cover Italy. They made it difficult for outsiders to cross into Italy. In addition to large mountains, Rome is also covered by hills. The city was built on hills, which protected it against invaders.

Waterways were also important to Rome’s early history. The Tiber River, near which the city was settled, provided freshwater and transported people through Rome. The Mediterranean Sea acted as a barrier against invaders and allowed the Romans to travel and trade by sea.

Legends of Ancient Rome
Not much is known about the early history of Rome. No written firsthand accounts of the city’s founding exist. However, historians believe that people began to settle the region surrounding Rome sometime in the 800s BC. These early people belonged to a group called the Latins.

Exactly who founded Rome remains a mystery. The Romans passed down a myth to explain the origin of their city. The myth tells the story of twin brothers named Romulus and Remus. According to the myth, the twins were sons of the Roman god of war, Mars, and a human priestess. When they were babies, their evil uncle threw them into the Tiber River. A female wolf rescued them and raised them as if they were her own cubs. Later, a shepherd adopted the boys.

When the boys were older, they built a city on the spot where their wolf mother found them. Romulus named the city Rome in his own honor. According to the legend, Romulus became the first king of Rome around 753 BC.

Early Kings and Etruscans
A monarchy ruled Rome in ancient times. Some of the kings were not Roman but Etruscan. The Etruscans lived to the north of Rome. They were great engineers who made many advancements in Rome, including a public sewer system, temples, roads, and bridges. The Etruscans also created an alphabet that became the basis for the Roman writing system, made up of Latin letters still used today.

According to historians, the last three kings of Rome were Etruscan. But by 509 BC, Roman nobles had rejected the city’s monarchy and sought to establish a new form of government.

The Roman Republic
In 509 BC, Roman nobles removed the Etruscan king Tarquin from power for his harsh rule. The Romans did not want one single ruler to hold all the power. Instead, they created a new form of government called a republic. In the republic, free male citizens of Rome elected leaders to represent them in government. These leaders were limited to one year in power so that they could not dominate the government in the republic. Today, we refer to a republic as a form of representative democracy.

The Roman Republic was not a true democracy, however. In a true democracy, all citizens are expected to play an active role in all matters of government. In the republic, only a small group of wealthy and powerful men controlled how the government was run.

Government and Society in the Early Roman Republic
The Roman Republic tried to improve on governments of the past, but it faced challenges in its early existence. One of the biggest challenges came from the citizens of the republic itself. Two classes of citizens emerged in the early republic: patricians and plebeians. The patricians were wealthy, landowning nobles. They made up only a minority of the population in the republic. However, they controlled most of the political power because they were the only group that could be elected into leadership roles. The plebeians were common citizens who made up the majority of Roman society. The plebeians were farmers, craftspeople, and traders. Some were quite wealthy. However, they could not be representatives in the Roman government.

Plebeians wanted to have more influence in the Roman government and moved gradually to take more power in Rome. Around 490 BC, wealthy plebeians formed a separate legislative group known as a council. This action concerned the patricians, who feared for the stability of the republic. To keep peace, the patricians made changes to the structure of the early government to balance power between the upper and lower classes in the republic. These changes resulted in the creation of a tripartite government. Let’s explore the structure of this government in the early Roman Republic.


Consuls
Consuls were the two most powerful officials in the Roman Republic. Consuls ran the government and were elected by the people, but they remained in power for just one year.

Consuls also held veto power over each other. This policy was to ensure that one leader could not become more powerful than the other.

Consuls controlled the Roman military. But during times of war, a dictator was chosen to lead the republic. However, dictators were only allowed to rule for a short time. When this time was up, power was transferred back to the consuls.

Senate
The Roman Senate was another part of the government. The Senate was comprised of 300 members, most of whom were patricians.

Senators advised the consuls on matters of state. They also controlled matters of finance in Rome.

Senators were elected to their positions, but they held those positions for life. This policy gave them great power and influence.

Assembly
The third part of the Roman government was the Assembly. Mostly plebeians took part, but all male Roman citizens could participate in Assembly meetings.

Tribunes were members of the Assembly whom the plebeians had elected to lead. Tribunes made laws that protected the rights of the common people of Rome, not just the nobles. They remained in power for one year.

Tribunes could veto decisions made by the consuls in Rome. In this way, tribunes held great power.

The government of ancient Rome brought stability and prosperity to the republic. It also introduced new ideas about political leadership that were unique for the time. Many of these ideas still influence democratic governments around the world today. Let’s explore some other unique characteristics of the early Roman government.

Written Laws
Around 450 BC, Roman leaders began to write down laws and make them accessible to the public. Before this time, only officials knew the exact language of laws, something many citizens wanted to change. Leaders first wrote laws on twelve bronze tablets. These laws were written in Latin, the language of ancient Rome. The Law of the Twelve Tables, as they were called, defined rules and rights for Roman citizens. They were put on display in the Roman Forum, a public meeting place that housed the early government.

Public Participation in Politics
Citizens of Rome had a civic responsibility to participate in politics. For example, men were expected to attend meetings of the assembly and vote in elections. Citizens were also encouraged to hold public positions. However, active participation in politics was limited to male citizens only. Women were not allowed to vote or run for leadership positions, and slaves had no rights at all in the Roman Republic.

A System of Checks and Balances
Leaders in the Roman Republic had limits on their powers. This restriction kept one government group from becoming too powerful over the others. This system was known as checks and balances. For example, laws proposed by the consuls could be vetoed by tribunes.

Term Limits for Leaders
Another way that ancient Romans kept a balance of power was by instituting limits on the time that certain leaders could hold public positions. For example, consuls could stay in power for only one year, as could tribunes

The Legacy of the Roman Government
As you read earlier, ideas from the Roman Republic influenced modern governments. The United States in particular used ancient Rome as a model for government. The founders of the United States created a representative democracy with a tripartite government that includes an executive, legislative, and judicial branch. Each branch follows a system of checks and balances to ensure that no branch becomes too powerful. For example, the executive branch can veto a law passed by the legislative branch.

The Republic Expands
The Roman Republic expanded rapidly in size and power between the years 400 BC and 200 BC. During this time, Rome conquered most of Italy and other territories in the Mediterranean region, including parts of Spain, North Africa, and Asia Minor (present-day Turkey).

As the republic expanded, trade also increased, making Rome wealthy. Roman merchants traded for items such as gold, silk, wool, spices, and ivory. Merchants also traded for slaves in the region.

Like other great civilizations in ancient history, the Romans developed a money system and used coins to pay for trade activities. Starting in the third century BC, the Romans produced gold, silver, and bronze coins. The coins carried images representing the republic’s greatness, recent events, and other symbols.

The Roman Army
Rome’s strong economy wasn’t the only reason for its success. The Republic also had a well-organized military. The Roman army was divided into large groups called legions, which contained 6,000 soldiers in total. Legions were then further broken down into smaller groups called centuries, which contained 100 soldiers in total. This system allowed for the Roman army to take on large or small forces with great success.

The Punic Wars
As Rome expanded in the Mediterrainian region, it created many enemies. This increased the importance of the Roman army. One of Rome’s biggest rivals was Carthage, a powerful empire, located on the Mediterranean in North. Carthage was also the gateway to trade with Africa and Spain. Rome and Carthage fought a series of three wars over 120 years for control of the Mediterranean Sea. These conflicts came to be called the Punic Wars.

The Punic Wars lasted from 264 BC to 146 BC. Carthage was a fierce foe but could not match the might of the Roman army. In the end, the Roman Republic controlled Spain, North Africa, and the island of Sicily.

From Republic to Empire
The Roman Republic conquered vast areas of land through its victories in wars. Eventually, Rome ruled a network of cities across Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. These cities were often allowed to keep their governments and leaders, but they were expected to be loyal to Rome.

The Republic’s expansion created problems internally, which led to its ultimate downfall. This time of instability lasted from roughly 133 BC to 30 BC. Let’s take a look at some problems that led to the decline of the Roman Republic.

Rome’s success benefited the upper class, but not the plebeians. By 135 BC, a gap had emerged between the rich and the poor. In addition, the poor struggled with increased taxes imposed to support Roman expansion.

The tribunes tried to help plebeians by creating laws to bridge the wealth gap, such as providing land and food for poor citizens. But patricians opposed these laws. Soon Rome became unstable, and violence broke out. Prominent leaders were even murdered by angry mobs who disagreed with their leadership.

Around the same time, powerful generals were vying to take control of the republic, and the military fell into crisis. In 88 BC, Rome experienced a civil war.

Slave revolts also troubled Rome during this era. One slave, a gladiator named Spartacus, helped to lead attacks against the republic. Eventually, these revolts were suppressed.

The Rise of Julius Caesar
By the beginning of the first century BC, the political order in the republic was breaking down. Rome’s system of checks and balances had ceased to work. Ambitious patricians used their wealth to bribe their way into high-level government positions. At the same time, Roman generals continued to have their military forces grab power in the republic.

One of these generals was Julius Caesar. Caesar was a skilled general and shrewd politician. His military conquests and powerful speeches earned him the respect of many in Rome. Caesar also had friends in high places. In 60 BC, he aligned himself with two leading patricians, Crassus and Pompey. Together, these three men took control of Rome and became the first triumvirate.

The triumvirate ruled Rome for a decade. During that time, Caesar’s popularity eclipsed that of Pompey and Crassus. Caesar’s capture of Gaul, now France, greatly contributed to this popularity. Caesar also supported reforms in Rome that were popular with plebeians. Additionally, he had the support of the Roman army.

However, by 50 BC, Pompey, Crassus, and members of the Senate feared Caesar’s growing influence in Rome. The triumvirate disbanded, and the Senate ordered Caesar to relinquish control of the Roman army. Caesar refused. Instead, he waged war against Pompey for control of Rome, emerging victorious in 46 BC. Shortly after, Caesar took the title of “dictator for life.”

As dictator, Caesar had absolute power over Rome. He implemented popular reforms in Rome, such as authorizing public works projects, which created jobs, and increasing wages for Roman soldiers. But many wealthy patricians feared and envied their new ruler, and they resented how he had come to power. They were also worried that Caesar would destroy the republic and return Rome to a monarchy, with Caesar’s heirs in line to rule.

Caesar’s reign was short and came to a violent end. On March 15, 44 BC, a group of senators surrounded Caesar in the Senate chamber and stabbed the dictator to death.

The End of the Roman Republic
Caesar’s death plunged Rome into another period of instability. Outraged mobs sought justice for those who had murdered the popular leader. Most of the senators involved in the assassination plot fled the city. In 42 BC, these men were tracked down and killed by the Roman army.

With Caesar gone, two rivals fought for power in Rome: Marc Antony and Octavian. Antony was a military leader who had been Caesar’s assistant, while Octavian was Caesar’s grand-nephew and chosen heir. At first, the men were allies, even ruling together as part of a second triumvirate. But by 36 BC, the triumvirate disbanded, and both Antony and Octavian sought control of Rome.In 31 BC, the armies of Octavian and Antony went to war.

Ultimately, Octavian won, giving him full control of Rome. In 27 BC, Octavian took the name Augustus, which means “the exalted one.” At this time, Augustus became the first emperor of Rome, marking the end of the Roman Republic and the start of the Roman Empire.

The Roman Empire
Augustus would rule Rome for four decades, ushering in a period of stability and prosperity in the empire. Trade flourished, the economy boomed, the government thrived, and the Roman army remained the world’s most powerful military force. Augustus also commissioned many improvements in the city, including the creation of roads, aqueducts, and temples.

Roman prosperity continued after Augustus. For the next 200 years, the Roman Empire was politically stable. Historians have named this period the Pax Romana, which means "Roman Peace." Emperors were all-powerful and worshipped by citizens as gods.

The Pax Romana lasted until about AD 180. Let’s look at some of Rome’s most impressive accomplishments during this era.
Accomplishments
Expanding Borders
Under Augustus's rule, the Roman Empire expanded significantly and continued to grow after his death in AD 14. By AD 117, the empire reached its peak, stretching from the British Isles to the eastern Mediterranean. The total area under Roman rule at this time was about three million square miles. This area is only a little smaller than the area of the United States.

Architecture
Augustus funded the construction and renovation of many beautiful monuments, temples, and government buildings. Many of these works were modeled off classic Greek designs. The emperors who followed him continued to build impressive works of architecture. One famous structure, the Roman Colosseum, was used for gladiator battles. Built around AD 70, much of the Colosseum still stands today.

Roads, Bridges, and Aqueducts
Highly skilled Roman engineers built thousands of roads and bridges to link every part of the empire to the city of Rome. The network of roads made it easier for Roman armies to move where needed. Roads stretched as far north as modern-day Scotland. Roads also helped increase trade across the empire. To carry fresh water for miles, engineers built aqueducts. These narrow structures looked like bridges and carried water into Rome from nearby bodies of water.

Government
Augustus had absolute control of Rome, but he restored some power to the Senate. Rome still had consuls, but the consuls had less power than Augustus. Augustus also made changes to improve the effectiveness of the government.

Expanded Trade
Trade was a major part of the Roman Empire. Rome depended on grains from Egypt and goods from eastern Europe. The wealthy citizens of Rome also had a taste for luxury items from distant regions of the empire, such as glass, jewels, and ornaments. Traders purchased and sold these goods in markets the Romans had established throughout their empire. To promote trade, the Romans also developed a common form of money for the empire.

Military
To strengthen Rome as a military power, Augustus created a large professional army. He paid the soldiers generously to ensure that they felt loyal to the Roman Empire. The Roman navy also grew powerful and protected Roman interests at sea.

Trouble in the Empire
Roman citizens reaped the benefits of the empire’s prosperity. But by AD 200 problems began to arise. The empire began to experience food shortages. In addition, people were unable to pay increased taxes needed to support the expanding military, which was increasingly under threat from outside invaders. In the north, Germanic warriors attacked Rome, plunging the empire into constant warfare. These factors all contributed to the empire’s decline.

The empire’s size was also a cause of its gradual decline. The empire had grown so large that it became difficult to govern. At its height, the population of the Roman Empire soared to between 60 and 80 million people. In the late 200s, the emperor Diocletian would split the empire in two, a fateful decision that would lead to Rome’s eventual demise.