Notes

Achaemenid Gold
Achaemenid Gold
The Achaemenid period (550 - 330 BC) is regarded as a high point for the production of artistic gold. It was also famous for producing the finest gold coins and exerting great political power as a result. The empire welded together diverse peoples via a centralized administration. At the top of a region was a local governor (or satrap) who was controlled from the center via a road system that facilitated the speedy transportation of troops as well as a postal system that could relay intelligence across vast distances. Regional cultures and religions were largely respected. Long-distance trade was not as developed as in the Classical era, but elite centers could command impressive resources via taxation and tribute. The heartland of Iran is rich in gold in forms that were easily mined in antiquity.
Some of the earliest Iranian gold objects are foil-covered jewelry, from tombs of the late fourth millennium in western Iran and Kerm?n, at a time of contact with gold poor Mesopotamia (Late Uruk period). Marlik is an ancient site near Roudbar in Gilan, in northern Iran that famously yielded many gold objects that appeared without context on the market. They were likely produced by an Iranian speaking people who migrated from Central Asia in early to mid-2nd millennium BC. The majority of material dates from the thirteenth to twelfth centuries, but burials continued into at least the ninth century. This era was one of state formation in Iran, and various Iranian speaking groups, including the Alans, Bactrians, Parthians, and Persiansh have much earlier antecedents in this era. Early Iran had a polytheistic religion, closely related to the Vedic India, but with the reform of Zoroaster it is thought that Ahura Mazda, king of the gods became the sole uncreated god in the universe. In a related process, various tribes welded together to form larger political units.
Perhaps the best example of early Iranian gold is presented by the Hasanlu gold bowl. Teppe Hasanlu in NW Iran is just south of Lake Urmia and from an area known for gold. The bowl was likely made at the site, and has been dated to ca. 1000-800 BC. There are some parallels in style with Mesopotamian art of that period, and there are some broad similarities with 9th-century carved stone reliefs from Carchemish. It has also been suggested that several deities on that bowl can be placed in the Hurrian pantheon. The gold and gilded jewelry and vessels said to be from Ziwiye (Zivia, located 100 km southeast of Lake Urmia) may have dated to the seventh century. As this site has been plundered over a long period of time, it is difficult to be certain of context. In style there are clear connections with connections with Scythia, Assyria, and Urartu. There is also a particular fondness for animals, which reflects the nomadic heritage of the culture. However, several pieces from this group are now believed to be forgeries. Perhaps not surprisingly, trace element analysis of ancient gold found that it can be traded over long distances. This is also confirmed in contemporary accounts. According to Herodotus (Histories 3.94-102), the Achaemenids received tribute in gold from India, as well as from Lydia, Ethiopia, Libya, and Thrace. Wherever the gold was obtained, local artists created a distinctive repertoire of symbols that regularly occur.
The faravahar is well known from ancient Iran, and similar symbols are found in Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is a winged sun disk with a seated male figure in the center. One of the earliest representations of the winged sun disk comes from Egypt where it appears during the period of the Old Kingdom (2613-2181 BC) representing the divine power of the king. It was associated with the god Ptah initially but gradually became connected with the Osiris-Set-Horus myth and by the time of the New Kingdom (1570 - c. 1069 BC). The Achaemenids ruled Egypt during the 27th and 31st Dynasties of Egypt.
The Assyrians were the first to develop the symbol into an image resembling the later faravahar through their depiction of the sun god Ashur. This image had a number of different variations but the most popular has Ashur as an archer riding in the center of the sun disk. In some versions, he carries his bow while, in others, he is firing it. This image would have been known to the Medes. For the Achaemenids it is thought to represent Ahura Mazda, the god of Zoroastrianism, but it might also signify royal power or a guardian spirit. It was also used particularly during the Sasanian period (224-651) and well into the Islamic period.
A rhyton is a vessel often associated with the Achaemenids. The earliest might date to c. 500 BC. It is usually horn shaped and there is often a more or less stylized animal at the end. Later the animal part of the vessel was located in front of the vessel and turned at a 90 degree angle. These vessels are found throughout the Near East and ancient Greece, and might follow vessel forms that were used by nomads. Lions can be found on these vessels. The Persian lions were not imported animals, but were native to the region. Asiatic lions (a small population still exists in India) look different from their African relatives in that they have larger tail tufts, a sparser mane, and a thick fold of skin on the abdomen.
On the Apadana staircase, the contest between a lion and a bull is particularly striking. It has been assumed that it represents an element of royal iconography, as it does not appear elsewhere. Lions are the most common animal depicted at Persepolis, and these animals also have pride of place on other Achaemenid art. Scenes showing one animal or creature attacking another, what we could call animal combats, are common in Persepolis and in other arts. However, these differ from the lion and bull combat in that they usually express a clear relationship between victorious predator and vanquished prey.
Another commonly encountered animal is a ‘griffin’. In the Classical world these creatures had the body, tail, and back legs of a lion; the head and wings of an eagle; and sometimes an eagle's talons as its front feet. Battles between griffons and warriors in Scythian clothing were a theme for Greek vase-painters. Several ancient authors suggest at the Northern boundary of the world, griffins and barbarians battle for gold (Herodotus 4.13.1). At Persepolis, one cannot assume that the ‘griffins’ were appreciated the same way as the Greeks would. They may have been seen more like mythical birds, and had a more positive connotation. Sasanian art frequently depicted a fantastic bird called the Senmurgh. It was clearly auspicious, but it did not look anything like a griffin. It is most often described as having the head and foreparts of a dog, the wings and tail of a peacock, and a body covered with scales. According to Medieval Persian legends, the Huma bird never rests because it has no legs. In other legends, it is reborn in fire like a phoenix. They are associated with luck, and at times provide gold. In Sufi traditions, even a glimpse of one is to be treasured for life. The same creature was likely also referred to as a ‘bird of paradise’ by the Ottomans.
Alyattes of Lydia (reign c.?618 – c.?561 BC) is credited as being the first monarch to issue coins, although they did not have a fixed weight standard. This meant that while their metallic standard was more or less fixed (they were made of the natural silver-gold alloy electrum), they would have to be weighed at every transaction. A battle between his forces and those of Cyaxares, king of Media, was interrupted by solar eclipse of 28 May 585 BC. After this, a truce was agreed and Alyattes married his daughter Aryenis to Astyages, the son of Cyaxares. The alliance preserved Lydia for another generation. This respite gave his son time to issue gold coins of a fixed weight standard. This innovation was appreciated by Herodotus, who states: "So far as we have any knowledge, they [the Lydians] were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coins, and the first who sold goods by retail" Herodotus, I94. Croesus was defeated by the Persian king Cyrus the Great, who continued to issue coins in the same style as his predecessor (although perhaps a bit more stiffly rendered). There was clearly demand, likely due to thriving local trade, that quickly adapted to coins.
At first gold and the heaviest silver coins weighed 10.7 grams. 10.7 grams corresponded to the nominal weight of gold in a standard 14.1 gram electrum stater. Soon after the gold coins weighing were 8.1 grams were struck. The simplified rate of exchange was 1 gold Croeseid of 8.1 grams was equivalent in value to 10 silver Croeseids of 10.7 grams. Cyrus the Great (550–530 BC) introduced coins to the Persian Empire after 546 BC, following his conquest of Lydia. Darius I (521–486 BC) introduced a new gold coin which had a standard weight of 8.4 grams (the daric), equaling in value 20 silver coins (singlos).
The so called Apadana hoard suggests the timing for the change. The hoard was deposited under the foundation stone of the Apadana in Persepolis, dated to circa 515 BC, confirming that they had been recently minted. The deposit did not have any Darics and Sigloi, which also suggests strongly that these Achaemenid coins only started to be minted later. The gold used in the coins was of very high quality with a purity of 95.83% and it bore the image of the Persian king or a great warrior armed with a bow and arrow. The ancient Greeks believed that the term dareikós (????????) was derived from the name of Darius the Great, who was believed to have introduced these coins. Some scholars now suggest that Greek term can be traced back to Old Persian *dari- and that it was first associated with the name of Darius only later. Sardis remained the central mint for the Persian Darics and Sigloi of Achaemenid coinage, and there is no evidence of other mints for the new Achaemenid coins during the whole time of the Achaemenid Empire. ancient art of silver Sigloi are largely recovered Asia Minor, and even in Western Achaemenid regions, Greek issues are more common than singloi. It seems that coinage was largely limited to the Western part of the Achaemenid empire, and that the issues from Sardis were only used in that locality. Perhaps the Eastern Achaemenid realm, having more of a nomadic tradition, still relied upon pure gold as an easily transportable store of value. Modern Iranian culture adheres to the custom of the groom giving a gift to the bride in gold. The gold is kept by the bride in case of divorce and offers some protection against financial hardship. Of course no one can suggest that this is a tradition that survives from Achaemenid times, but it is clear that gold had a special role in Iranian culture.

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